Financial Services-munotes

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INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL
SERVICES
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Meaning of financial Services
1.2 Financial services in India – An Overview and Recent
Developments
1.3 Characteristics of financial services
1.4 Functions of financial services
1.5 Classification / Types of financial services
1.6 Challenges in the Indian financial services sector
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this chapter is
1. To introduce the learners to the concept of financial services.

2. The learners will become familiarized with the meaning and scope of
financial services in general and with reference to India.

3. The reader will also learn the financial services market constituents in
India.

4. Along with this, the user will also learn about the growth of the
financial services sector in India, problems with the Indian financial
services sector.

1.1 MEANING OF FINANCIAL SERVICES

Financial services are an important part of our economic ecosystem.
Financial services primarily refer to a broad range of activities like
banking, ins urance, investment services, brokerage services, consumer
finance companies to name a few. Typically speaking, these services are
restricted to activities of financial services firms and their professionals.
These financial service providers provide financ ial products like different
investments and their instruments. In simple terms, we can say that all
types of activities which are financial in nature are a default part of
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2 1.2 FINANCIAL SERVICES IN INDIA – AN
OVERVIEW AND RECENT DEVEL OPMENTS
India has a very diversified financial sector undergoing rapid expansion.
This rapid growth is witnessed in terms of existing financial services and
addition of new entrants to this market. Financial services sector in India
includes commercial ban ks, insurance companies, NBFCs (Non -Banking
financial companies), pension funds, mutual funds and scores of other
smaller financial entities. Banking sector has witnessed tremendous
growth with the introduction of new entrants like payment banks, Small
finance banks and digital growth in Banking. The Government of India is
relentlessly introducing liberalization reforms to enhance this industry.
RBI has changed the financial services landscape by allowing easy fund
access to Micro, Small and Medium Enterpri ses (MSMEs), setting up of
MUDRA (Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency). Not only
RBI, even SEBI and other regulatory agencies have aggressively changed
the financial services landscape in the country. The combined initiatives of
all the stakeholde rs have made the Indian financial services sector one of
the most vibrant and robust in the world.
Let us look at some latest statistics to understand the spread of financial
services in India. As of June 2021, Assets under management (AUM) of
the mutual f und industry alone stood at Rs.33.67 trillion (USD449.29
billion). SIP (Systematic Investment Plan) alone saw investments worth
Rs 96000 crore (USD 13.12 billion). Another important component of
India’s financial services sector is the Insurance industry. The amount of
premium collected by insurance companies as the first premium of life
insurance policies crossed Rs 2.60 lakh crore (USD 36.74 billion) in 2020.
IN the same period, USD 4.25 billion was raised through 55 IPOs (Initial
Public Offering). Explos ive growth is seen across financial services
despite the financial problems brought upon by the pandemic.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF FINANCIAL SERVICES
a. Customer centric activities - Most of the financial services are heavily
customer centric. Customer is at the centre of all the activities of these
firms. Financial services cater to the very specific requirements of
customers. Customers can be individuals as well as institutions. They are
in constant touch with their customers so that newer products and serv ices
can be designed to cater to specific needs.
b. Information centric – Financial services are information centric. The
service provider needs to gather relevant information, analyze them, and
extract relevant pieces of information for suggesting customi zed services.
c. Intangibility – Intangibility is an important feature of services.
Financial services are no different. One cannot see the dimensions of
financial services like other goods and products, but one can experience
the service offering. Brandin g and brand image is also an important
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Introduction to Financial Services
3 d. Inseparability – The financial service providers and their services are
inseparable. Creation of financial services and delivery of these services
happ en simultaneously.
e. Perishable – Like any other service, financial services are also
perishable in nature. These services also strike a match between demand
and supply. Like other regular services, they cannot be stored and will
have to be offered as and when they are demanded by the customers.
f. Human Centric – The human element is the most dominant force in
the financial services industry. Financial services require people who are
thorough professionals and competent in their respective fields. They h ave
to understand the customer requirements thoroughly and design and
recommend products and services.
g. Customization : Financial services are highly customized in their
product and service offering. Providing financial services also involves a
varying de gree of advisory services as well. These elements have to be
customized. These services vary from one client to another. In simple
words, financial services are heterogenous in nature.
1.4 FUNCTIONS OF FINANCIAL SERVICES
Financial services require a perfec t blend of financial markets, financial
intermediaries and financial products. When these three come together in
harmony, a robust financial service ecosystem is created which is able to
fulfill specific set of functions. You should remember that for order ly
development of the economy, financial services should be able to function
at the optimum level. Following are some of the key functions of financial
services.
a. Mobilization of funds – Idle funds in the form of savings needs to be
mobilized so that the y can be put to productive use. The funds can be
mobilized from individuals, institutions and corporate entities alike. These
funds can be mobilized through financial instruments like shares, bonds &
debentures, mutual funds etc.
b. Utilization of mobilize d funds – Once the funds are mobilized,
financial services are also responsible for ensuring their optimum
utilization. Factoring, securitization, retail investing and other ways are
used to ensure that the funds are utilized thoroughly. Maximum benefits
can be reaped when money is used prudently.
c. Economic Development – As discussed in the earlier two points,
mobilizing and channelizing savings into productive avenues of
investments will help in economic development.
d. Risk Management – Insurance is an essential financial service.
Insurance helps in effective risk management by transferring risk from the
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Financial Services
4 e. Improving liquidity - Allocating and reallocating savings and
investments helps in improving the liquidity scenario in the ec onomy.
Liquidity is important as it allows easy and smooth conversion of financial
assets into cash.
f. Employment Opportunities – The Financial services sector is one of
the largest employers in the country. Millions are employed by this sector.
1.5 CLAS SIFICATION / TYPES OF FINANCIAL
SERVICES
The term “financial services'' is like a box of assorted cookies. There are a
variety of institutions that provide means to save for the future, secure
against risk and organize capital for investment and consumptio n. A wide
range of services like raising funds, credit rating, underwriting, merchant
banking, commercial banking, depository services, mutual funds, factoring
and forfaiting and other services are covered.
Following are the ways and means in which we shal l classify financial
services.
1. Traditional Financial Services – Traditional financial services include
all those that cater to both capital and money markets. Traditional
financial services can further be classified into two avenues; a. Fund based
services b. Fee based services
A) Fund Based Services – These are the services through which firms
and institutions raise funds by issuing equity shares, debentures. Banks
also play a vital role and provide loan capital to businesses. The broad
areas in whi ch the fund based financial service providers operate are;
a. Primary market and secondary market activities and operations.
b. FOREX market services.
c. Financial innovation and financial engineering services.
d. Specialized financial services.
The fo llowing are the different examples of fund -based service providers;
a. Factoring and Forfaiting
b. Consumer loans and credit
c. Bill Discounting
d. Hire Purchase
e. Lease financing
f. Insurance
g. Venture Capital
h. Housing finance
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5 B) Fee Based S ervices – Fee based financial services are those where the
financial institutions provide services where these firms earn a substantial
income in the form of fees, brokerage, commission or dividends. The
scope of operations of fee -based services include th e following;
a. Managing IPO’s and capital issues – Initial Public Offer refers to new
issue of shares to general public. The procedure is very detailed and
exhaustive. It requires assistance of merchant bankers, underwriters
and other professional entities.
b. Management consultancy projects – Firms may require advisory and
consultancy on many areas like legal, finance, regulatory to name a
few. Professional entities help firms to navigate such complex issues
for a fee.
c. Portfolio Management - Portfolio refers to holding of a basket of
different securities and assets for wealth creation. Professional
portfolio managers will render such services for a nominal fee.
d. Corporate Counselling – New firms, especially startup’s require help
for setting up of their operations and for upscaling. Corporate
counselling helps build corporate culture and a robust work
environment for internal efficiency.
e. Loan Syndication – Large activities requires huge loans. A single
bank may not be in a position to provide a huge loan. So a grou p of
banks come together to contribute a collective loan called loan
syndication.
f. Stock Broking – Stock brokers are those intermediaries who help you
to buy and sell shares and charge a small fee for facilitating the same.
g. Capital Restructuring – Sometimes , firms require external assistance
to restructure their capital. It is required to maintain a healthy capital
structure and financial solvency.
h. Mergers and Acquisition – Companies may go for expansion through
merger with other companies or by acquiring ot her entities. The entire
process is super critical and requires professional expertise for
successful outcomes.
2. Modern Financial Services – Modern Financial Services are all those
financial services that have evolved over the years. They cater to new and
ever evolving requirements of clients.
Some of the modern financial services include but is not limited to the
following;
a. Hedging of risk (Hedging is a risk management process. It involves
financial risk management)
b. Project Advisory Services (Involves consultancy and advisory
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Financial Services
6 c. Rehabilitation and reconstructing of sick companies (It involves
activities that will try to improve the financial condition of sick
entities)
d. Registration and transfer, custodian, clearing services and credit rating
services.
e. Asset Liability Management (It involves managing the assets and
liabilities of the firm to ensure that the firm doesn’t default on its
liabilities and obligations).
1.6 CHALLENGES TO INDIAN FINANCIA L SERVICES
SECTOR
Financial services sector, especially in India, is highly vibrant and robust.
A wide variety of services cater to individual and institutional clients.
Exponential growth brings a series of challenges along with it. Let us look
at some of the challenges facing the Indian financial services sector.
1. Changing nature of regulations – The Indian financial sector has
always struggled with regulations. One might say that we are over
regulated and sometimes, these excessive regulations create p roblems
and hindrances. Excessive regulations prevent institutions from being
flexible. Our regulations should be such that investors rights are
protected and the institutions flourish.
2. Shortage of talented and qualified professionals – The growth of
finan cial services means there is a growing need for talented, certified
and qualified professionals. However, such qualified and eligible
workforce is not available. There is an urgent need to create a
qualified, financially literate and talented pool of labor force.
3. Changes in consumer preferences – Customer needs and wants are
ever changing. Their preferences are ever evolving. This means that
companies will have to come up with new ways to reach out to
customers. They have to innovate constantly. Changes in consumer
preference is indeed a challenge that needs urgent addressing.
4. Unconventional segmentation of the market – Indian markets are so
complex that navigating them is a challenge. This issue is magnified
when one realizes that Indian markets are segment ed in
unconventional ways. There are problems with linkages due to this
disjointed segmentation.




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Introduction to Financial Services
7 Chapter wise questions for practice.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The availability of cash and other cash like marketable instruments that
are useful in purc hases and investments are comm only known as
a. Liquidity
b. Credit
c. Marketability

2. ________ are the challenges faced by financial services entities in India

a. Shifting consumer preference

b. Complex segmentation of market

c. Both a and b

3. Project m anagement and risk management is part of ___________
financial services

a. Traditional

b. Modern

c. Neo-Classical

4. Bill discounting and hire purchase is a _______ financial service

a. Fund based

b. Fee based

c. Commission based

5. Capital Issues and loan syndication are _____ financial services

a. Fund based

b. Fee based

c. Commission based

6. Issuing shares for the first time is part of __________ market
operations

a. Secondary

b. Primary

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8
7. Trading of listed shares is a part of ______ _____ market operations

a. Primary

b. Secondary

c. Tertiary
Explain the following terms in One or Two lines
a. Financial Services
b. Fund based services
c. Fee based services
d. Primary market
e. Secondary market
f. Liquidity
Answer the following questions in det ail
1. Define ‘Financial Services’ and explain the recent developments in
financial services arena.
2. What are the characteristics of financial services?
3. Explain the major functions of financial services
4. Explain the fund based and fee based financial services.
5. What are the challenges faced by financial services in India?



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9 2
MERCHANT BANKING
Unit Structure :
2.0 Learning Objectives
2.1 Merchant Banking In India
2.2 Reasons For Growth Of Merchant Banking
2.3 Organization That Can Offer Merchant Banking Services In India
2.4 Merchant Bankers In India
2.5 Functions Of Merchan t Bankers
2.6 Services Of Merchant Bankers
2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, Learner will be able:
 To understand the meaning, nature and functions of Merchant Banking
 To understand role of merchant banking in issue management.
 To understand the regulation of merchant bankers by SEBI
2.1 MERCHANT BANKING IN INDIA
A person may apply to the Board for the issuance of a certificate of
registration using Form A.
When submitting an application for registration, the applicant must pay a
non-refundabl e application fee of Rs. 50,000 via direct credit in the bank
account via NEFT/RTGS/IMPS or any other mode permitted by the RBI,
or by a demand draught made payable to the "Securities and Exchange
Board of India" and payable in Mumbai or the respective reg ional office.
The application under sub -regulation (1) shall be made for any one of the
following categories of the merchant banker namely:
(a) Category I, that is
(i) to carry on any activity of the issue management, which will, inter alia,
consist of pre paration of prospectus and other information relating to the
issue, determining financial structure, tie up of financiers and final
allotment and refund of the subscriptions; and
(ii) to act as adviser, consultant, manager, underwriter, portfolio manager munotes.in

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10 (b) Category II, that is to act as adviser, consultant, co -manager,
underwriter, portfolio manager;
(c) Category III, that is to act as underwriter, adviser, consultant to an
issue
(d) Category IV, that is to act only as adviser or consultant to an issue.
The minimum net worth requirement for acting as
merchant banker is given below
The minimum net worth requirement for acting as merchant banker is
given below
Category Net worth
Category I Rs. 5 cores
Category II Rs, 50 lakhs
Category III Rs. 20 lakhs
Category IV Nil

According to SEBI guidelines, any public issue or rights issue worth more
than Rs. 50 lakhs must be managed by a Merchant Banker who is
registered with SEBI. They will be governed by the code of conduct
outlined in the regulations. The number of Issue Managers who can be
associated with an Issue is limited by SEBI Regulations:
Size of the Issue Permissible No. of Lead Managers
Less than Rs. 50 crores 2
Rs. 50 crores but less then Rs. 100
crores 3
Rs. 100 crores but less than Rs.
200 crores 4
Rs. 200 crores but less than Rs.
400 crores 5
Rs. 400 crores and above 5 or more

Before accepting an assignment relating to an issue, all lead managers
must enter into an agreement with the relevant company outlining their
rights and obligatio ns. If more than one lead manager is involved, their
responsibilities must be clearly defined. There will be a minimum
underwriting agreement. A Lead manager is unable to manage an issue
involving an associate company. During the issue period, no lead mana ger
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11 Issue managers play an important role in raising funds through public
securities offerings. Companies that are considering issuing new capital
decide on issue managers after conducting extensive due diligence and
carefully analysing the merch ant banker's competence and capabilities to
handle the issue. They provide valuable services in the preparation and
drafting of the prospectus, pricing the issue, marketing and underwriting
the issue, coordinating the activities of various agencies/institu tions
involved in this context to carry out legalities involved in the process,
deciding the basis of allotment, making the allotment, despatch of share
certificates/refund orders as the case may be, and finally, in the listing of
shares on stock exchanges .
Activities of Merchant Banker:
SEBI has issued compendium of circulars to merchant bankers from time
to time and broadly has divided these activities into two groups i.e., Pre -
issue activities and Post -issue activities.
A. Pre-issue activities : Before a public offering, a merchant banker
must obtain consent from the stock exchange to appoint managers,
bankers, underwriters, and brokers, as well as advise the company on the
appointment of auditors, board of directors, prospectus, and obtain consent
from the company's legal counsel. Pre -issue management entails:
 obtaining SEBI approval;
 preparing a prospectus;
 selecting a registrar, advertising issues, underwriters, bankers, and
brokers; and
 determining the price for their issues.
Some important aspects about these activitiesare discussed here.
1. Obtaining SEBI approval: Before issuing any capital, ensure that the
proposed issue complies with the provisions of the SEBI guideline for
disclosure and investor protection in terms of issue pricing, promoters,
contribution, lock in period, reservation, and so on.

2. Holding of a General Meeting: If the Articles of Association require
that shareholder consent be obtained, then a shareholder meeting shall
be called.

3. Intimation to the Stock Exchange: A copy of the compa ny's
Memorandum and Articles of Association must be sent to the stock
exchanges where the shares will be listed for approval.

4. Prospectus:A public issue is the sale of securities to the general public
in accordance with the Companies Act of 2013 and SEBI gu idelines. A
public offering of equity shares is classified as
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12  Public issue
 Right issue
 Preferential issue (Private Placement)
 Content of a Prospectus:
 Date / country of incorporation
 Company principal activities
 Profit and loss a/c balance sheet and cash f low statement for the
past three years.
 Statement of accounting principle
 Auditors reports with name and address.
 Material relates to financial position
 Analysis of sales by geographical area etc.
 Detail regarding issues of shares / deposit agreement.
Type of prospectus:
a. Offer document: Prospectus in the case of a public offering and right
issue is filed with company registrars and stock exchanges. This offer
document contains all of the company's information and assists an
investor in making investment dec isions.
b. Draft offer document: This refers to an offer document that is still in
the draft stage. The draft offer document must be filed with SEBI
within 21 days prior to submitting the offer document to ROC. The
draft offer document should be posted on the SEBI website for public
comment.
c. Red herring prospectus: This is a prospectus that does not include
information such as the exact price and number of shares being
offered. It contains information on the upper and lower price ranges.
d. Abridged prospectus: T his prospectus is included with the application
form of the Public issue.
e. Shelf prospectus: Under the Companies Act 2013, any financial
institution or bank may file a shelf prospectus covering one or more
securities issues or classes of securities. Specifi ed in the prospectus
filed with the company's registrar.
The benefit of a shelf prospectus is that the issuing institution does not
have to file a new prospectus. The shelf prospectus has a one -year validity
period.
5. Appointment of Intermediaries: a. Regist rars to the issue: The Registrar
of an IPO, also known as an Initial Public Offering, is in charge of
processing the company's IPOs. These organisations are independent
financial institutions that are registered with stock exchanges and SEBI.
The company t hat is going public appoints these bodies. A registrar's
primary role when issuing an IPO is to process IPO applications,
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Merchant Banking
13 process refunds via cheque and ECS, and transfer allocated shares to
the applicant's demand accounts.

 Banker to the issue: Merchant bankers assist in the selection of
appropriate bankers based on project proposals. Commercial bankers
are merely financiers, and their activities include credit proposal,
credit appraisal, a nd loan sanction.If a new company wants to do new
issues, the banker must assist the following intermediary with
newissue work.

 Underwriter: An underwriter agreement is a contract between the
issuing company and a person or institution in which the latter
guarantees that if the share is not fully subscribed. That person is
referred to as an underwriter. Subscription is thus guaranteed even if
the general public does not purchase from the issuing company.
Underwriting forms and types:

o Full underwriting: An u nderwriter who accepts the entire subscription
is referred to as a full underwriter.

o Partial underwriting: A partial share subscription by an underwriter is
referred to as partial underwriting.

o Joint underwriter: More than two underwriters have subscribed as a
joint underwriter.

o Sub-underwriter: One underwriter may appoint another underwriter to
handle the subscription of shares.

o Firm underwriting: When an underwriter commits to purchasing or
subscribing to a specific number of shares from the public, this is
referred to as firm underwriting.

 Broker: Broker is a person who behaving as intermediary between
buyer and seller to by securities and subscribe the securities.

 Advertising: Any person engaged in the creation, preparation, and
display of advertisements concerning issues is referred to as an
advertising agency. A merchant banker arranges a meeting with
company representatives and an advertising agent to finalise the date
of issuer's opening and closing. The media for publication can be
finalised by the m erchant banker.

 Printers: Printer is a person who prints the (i) Application form. (ii)
Prospectus and (iii) Other issue material.

6. Fixing price for their issues: Different types of public issues
 Initial public offering (IPO): The first time shares issued by a new
company are called an initial public offering (IPO), or the first sale of
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14  Follow on public offer (FPO): Follow up on public shares issued by a
company that has already gone public through an IPO. An FPO is any
company formed after the initial public offering.

 Right Issue: A right issue is the sale of securities in the primary
market through the issuance of rights to be the existing shareholder.

 Offer for Sale: A company can list new shares in one of t wo ways.
o By an offer sale which is a public invitation by intermediary.
o By an offer for sale which is a public invitation by company.
 Green shoe option: A green shoe option is an option to allocate shares
in excess of those included in the public offering and to operate a
post-listing price stabilising mechanism for a period of no more than
30 days.

 E-IPO: A company that is preparing to offer securities to the public
via an online stock exchange system.

 Private placement/placement with FIs, MFs, and so on: Private
placement and preferential allotment involve only selling securities to
sophisticated investors such as financial institutions, material funds,
venture capital funds, and so on. The identity of investors in a
preferential allotment is revealed when the issuing company seeks
shareholder approval. In contrast, when the offer document is
prepared for a private placement, the identity of the investors is
unknown.

 Bought out deal: Bought out deal is a process of investment by a
sponsor such direct invest ment is being made with understanding
between the company and the sponsor to go for public offering in
mutually agree time. A company will allot shares in full to sponsor.
After certain period of agreed upon between sponsor and the
company.

7. Pricing the is sues: In a public offering, one of the most important
challenges for a merchant banker is pricing. Appropriate pricing not
only ensures the issue's success, but also provides a good return to the
prospective well. Pricing is the value of a specific or per stock.
Through the book building process, an issuer may determine the price
of specified securities in consultation with the lead merchant banker.
Parameters of issue pricing:
 price to earning ratio (P/E Ratio)
 price to book value ratio etc.

Pricing stra tegies for an issue:
 Differential pricing: Listed and unlisted companies may issue shares
securities to firm allotment applicants at a price different from the
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15  Price band: The issuer or issuing companies may specify a 20% price
band in the document field with the SEBI. The final price will be
determined later.

 Payment of discounts/commissions: The issuer company/promoters
may not make any direct or indirect payment to any firm allotted in a
public offering , whether in the form of a discount/ commission/
allowance or otherwise.

 Share denomination: Any denomination of equity shares can be issued
in a public/rights issue.
B. Post issue management:
The stage following the issuance of securities to subscribers is known as
the post -issue obligation. The major post -issue obligations concern
participation in the allotment procedure, post -issue monitoring reports,
resolving investor grievances, and coordination with intermediaries,
among other things.

1. Procedure for allotment and the basis for allotment: The merchant
banker, in collaboration with the MD of the recognised stock exchange
and the issue's registrar, is responsible for ensuring that the basis of
allotment is finalised in a fair and proper manner in accorda nce with
Regulation 49 of the ICDR Regulations. Such shares should be allotted
in such a way that the minimum allotment equals the minimum
application size as determined and disclosed in the offer document.

2. Post-issue monitoring report: In the case of an IPO, the merchant
banker must submit a post -issue monitoring report on the third day
following the close of the issue's subscription.

3. Post-issue advertisement: Regulation 51 of the ICDR regulations
imposes a duty on merchant bankers to ensure that a post -issue
advertisement detailing subscription, the basis of allotment, the value
and percentage of all applicants, the date of filing of listing application,
and other details is published in at least one nationwide English and
Hindi newspaper within ten days of the date of various activities.

4. Redressal of investors grievance: The Post -issue Lead Merchant
Banker shall actively participate in post -issue activities such as
allotment, refund, and despatch, and shall regularly monitor redressal
of investor grieva nces arising from such activities.

5. Coordination with intermediaries: It entails coordinating with various
agencies involved in post -issue activity, such as the registrar to issue,
bankers to the issue, self -certified banks, and underwriter.

6. Certificate r egarding the realization of stock investors and other
requirement: : The Post -Issue Lead Merchant Banker shall submit to munotes.in

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16 the Board, within two weeks of the date of allotment, a Certificate
certifying that the stock investments on which the allotment was
finalised, have been realised.

7. SEBI's operational guidelines: Compliance requirements for merchant
banker(s) in relation to operational guidelines include submission of
draught and final offer documents, post -obligation instructions, penalty
point issuance, and so on. These guidelines are available on the SEBI
website.
2.2 REASONS FOR GROWTH OF MERCHANT
BANKING
1. Globalization: After the reforms in 1991, the Indian economy got
opened to foreign companies. This led to funds inflow from the foreign
countries in Indian market. This led to growth of merchant banks in
India as to ensure these inflows through proper legal way.
2. Increased Competition: As the economy has become more globalised,
market scenarios have become more lucrative, and business
opportunities have been more appealing to a variety of people. These
factors shifted the Indian corporate sector, due to which there saw a
significant expansion. This led merchant bankers to play a vital role in
the corporate world by providing specialised services.
3. Changes in consumer trends: As a result of the entry of foreign
companies into the market, there has been a significant alteration in the
industrial and business sectors. The main benefit was that the Indian
masses began to receive higher -quality products as Indi an enterprises
began to match the quality of foreign products. Financial products and
instruments grew more significant in such circumstances.
4. Government Reforms: The government's involvement was minimised,
while privatisation expanded. It also increased i nvestment limitations
and reduced direct interference, leading to an increase in the offer of
international players.
5. Changes in consumer demographics: According to a Deloitte report
published in September 2017, India has 65 percent of its population
under 65 years old and that:
a) it sits on a demographic goldmine,
b) it is estimated that India has around 390 million millennials and about
440 million millennials in the GEN Zcohort,
c) the median population age is 27.3 years, compared to 35 years in
China and 47 years in Japan.
With a growing workforce, there is a demand for more informed
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17 6. Technology Advancement: Today's technology is assisting in the
redefinition of operational modes and methodologi es, allowing market
players to pursue novel avenues for superior investment strategies.
One example is the introduction of an electronic version of the
dematerialization account, also known as the Dematerialization
Account.
2.3 ORGANIZATION THAT CAN OFFER MERCHANT
BANKING SERVICES IN INDIA
Here are the organizations that provide Merchant banking services in
India:
a. Commercial Banks and their sub -banks


b. Foreign Banks e.g., Citi Bank, National Grindlays bank, etc.


c. State Level Financial Institutions are Stat e Industrial Development
Corporations(SIDC’s) and State Financial Corporations (SFC).

d. India Financial Institutions and Development Bankse.g., ICICI, IFCI,
IDBI, etc.

e. Private Financial Consultancy Firms and Brokers e.g., J.M. Financial
and InvestmentServi ces Ltd., DSP FinancialConsultants, Kotak
Mahindra, etc.

f. Professional Merchant Banking Houses.

g. Technical Consultancy Organisations.
2.4 MERCHANT BANKERS IN INDIA
There are more than 130 merchant bankers who are registered with SEBI.
Here is the li st of some significant ones:
Public Sector Merchant Bankers :
State Bank of Bikaner and Jaipur, Punjab National Bank, Bank of
Maharashtra, Karur Vysya Bank, SBI Capital markets Ltd., IFCI Financial
Services Ltd.
Private Sector Merchant Bankers :
Yes, Bank Ltd., ICICI Securities Ltd., Kotak Mahindra Capital Company
Ltd., Axis Bank Ltd., Tata Capital Markets Ltd., Reliance Securities Ltd.,
Bajaj Capital Ltd., ICICI Bank Ltd.
Foreign Players in Merchant Banking :
Barclays Securities (India) Pvt. Ltd, FedEx Sec urities Ltd., Goldman
Sachs (India) Securities Pvt. Ltd., DSP Merrill Lynch Ltd., Deutsche
Equities India Private Limited, Morgan Stanley India Company Pvt. Ltd.,
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18 2.5 FUNCTIONS OF MERCHANT BANKERS
a. Raising finance: Merchant bankers assist thei r customers in obtaining
funding through debenture issuances, stock purchases, bank loans, and
other means. Filming takes place in both domestic and international
markets. The funds generated by this strategy can be used to start a new
project or company, or to expand and modernise an existing one.

b. Promotional activities are carried out by merchant bankers in the
capacity of industrial business promoters. They enable developers to
create innovations, define ventures, conduct feasibility studies, obtain
perm its from government agencies, and capitalise on opportunities.
Merchant bankers may also help with political, technological, and
collaborative projects on occasion.

c. Managing public issue: They serve as consultants on the terminology,
form, and timing of co rporate securities issues and helps them to be
tailored to customers and provides the issuing companies with
transparency and versatility.

d. Credit syndication: They offer professional services during project
planning, loan applications required to collect s hort- and long -term
credit from various institutions and companies, etc.

e. Handling government consent for industrial projects: They complete all
formalities for their client and allow the government to extend and
modernize their businesses and launch new co mpanies

f. Special assistance to entrepreneurs and small companies: They offer
guidance and resources for market prospects for start -ups and small
businesses, discounts, grants, and government policy, and help them
make the best of this opportunity open to th em.

g. The revival of sick units: They help to restore disabled manufacturing
units. They meet with various long -term financing institutions and the
Industrial and Financial Restoration Council.

h. Portfolio management of sick units: They give guidance on invest ment
choices to customers, typically institutional investors. They purchase
and sell shares and offer fund investment services and them.

i. Corporate restructuring: They help mergers acquisitions, selling and
disinvestment comprise them. Such protocols includ e careful
discussions, detailed planning, and delivery of various documentation
and lengthy legal formalities.

j. Brokers in stock exchanges: They buy and sell stock in the stock
market on behalf of consumers. They frequently conduct equities
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Merchant Banking
19 purchase, the amount of such acquisition, and the period during which
these shares will be exchanged.

k. Project management: They assist customers in a variety of ways during
the project management cycle. They direct the plant's position, the
writing of the plant study, feasibility reports, and project finance
preparation, as well as the sources of support, policy benefits, and
concessions.

l. Advice on modernization and expansion: Advice on amalgamation,
mergers, partnerships, partnerships, international alliances, market
diversification, technology upgrades, joint ventures, and so on.
2.6 SERVICES OF MERCHANT BANKERS
The services of the Merchant Banker

I. Service based functions:

a. Project counselling and pre -investment studies: Project counselling
entails preparing a project report, deciding on a project's funding
strategy, evaluating the project report, and securing cash from
financial institutions or banks, among other things. Merchant bankers
advise corporate entities on project report preparation, which includes
technical feasibility, marketing survey, and other project -related
information such as management aspects, location, financing options,
projected cost of production, working results, cash flow statemen ts,
and balance sheets.

Project reports are prepared for the following reasons :
 to obtain project approval from the appropriate authorities,
 to obtain financial assistance from financial institutions, banks, and
other sources
 to make planned resource uti lisation and project implementation
within the specifiedtime frame,
 to investigate the market for the proposed product
 to gain an understanding of the specified technical process and
engineering requirements for product manufacturing, and
 to make recommend ations.

b. Credit syndication and project finance: Credit syndication refers to
merchant banks' services in arranging and raising credit from financial
institutions, banks, and other prominent investment organisations in
order to finance clients' project cos ts or meet working capital
requirements.There are three types of periodic sources of funds, viz.,

 Short Term Funds: can be obtained from commercial banks, trade
credit, public deposits, business financing companies, and clients to
cover working capital ne eds. These funds are usually set up for a very
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20
 Medium Term Funds: State financial companies, commercial banks,
and all -India financial institutions, industrial financing corporations of
India (IFCI), industrial develo pment bank of India (IDBI), investment
institutions, and the general public provide medium -term money in
the form of fixed deposits. These funds are often allocated for a
period of five years and are required for permanent working capital,
expansion, or as set replacement.

 Long Term Funds: Long term funds are those that are held for more
than five years and are used to start a new project, modernise or
diversify an existing unit of corporate entities, and for other purposes.
Loan syndication is essentially concerned with the arranging of
borrowed funds from various sources other than funds raised from the
general public.

c. Capital Issue management: The management of issues for generating
funds through various forms of instruments by firms is referred to as
capital issue management. Merchant bankers in India provide a
professional service in the management of capital issues. In reality,
issue management is one of merchant bankers' primary
responsibilities.

d. Underwriting of capital issues: Underwriting is a cont ract made
between an issuing company and another party known as an
underwriter who agrees to accept undersubscription of securities in
exchange for a commission. A fully underwritten public issue instils
confidence in the investing public, resulting in a f avourable response
to the issue. Keeping this in mind, companies that issue public
securities must have a thorough understanding of the issue. Merchant
bankers who manage an issue must make a careful decision after
thoroughly reviewing the issue's details and the amount to be
underwritten. Underwriters must be SEBI -authorized and registered
merchant bankers, brokers, banks, and financial institutions, among
other things.

e. Corporate counselling: Merchant banks provide expertise knowledge
to a corporate entit y by providing guidance in connection with
government rules and regulations, appraising product lines and
analysing their growth and profitability, and forecasting future market
trends.This is an intermediary function that necessitates the ability to
devel op strategies, expert knowledge, skills, and experience in order
to solve business problems.It ranges from managerial economics,
financial and investment management to corporates, compliance of
laws and the relatedlegal aspects etc.

f. Portfolio management: A portfolio is a collection of securities that
includes stocks, bonds, and money market instruments. Portfolio
management refers to the process of combining various asset classes
in order to achieve the best possible return with the least amount of
risk. P ortfolio manager provides portfolio management services. Any
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21 advises, directs, or undertakes on behalf of the client the management
or administration of a portfolio of securities or the clien t's funds is
referred to as a portfolio manager. When performing portfolio
management services, a merchant banker must inquire about the
investment needs of clients, their tax bracket, risk tolerance,
marketability and liquidity of securities, reasonable r eturn on
investment, and so on.

g. Stock broking and dealership: A broker is a self -employed individual
or company who executes financial transactions on behalf of another
party. In most cases, a broker will charge a commission to execute the
orders.

The t erm "dealer" refers to an individual or a company who buys and
sells securities for their own account, either through a broker or on
their own. Dealers are an important and critical market entity. A
dealer acts as a principal in trading on his own account and plays a
significant role, as opposed to a broker, who is merely a middleman.

h. Venture capital financing: When it is too early for a company to go to
the capital market to raise funds, venture capital is essentially equity
financing in relatively new co mpanies. It entails not only equity
investments, but also loan financing and convertible debt. The goal of
venture capital financing is to earn capital gains on equity
investments, with debt financing serving as a backup. Venture capital
also provides busi ness skills to the investee firm, which is known as a
'hands -on' management approach. The risk -return spectrum of venture
capital financing is high.

i. Debenture trusteeship: A debenture trustee means a trustee of a trust
deed for securing any issue ofdebent ures of a body corporate. They
provide services of safeguarding security and protect interest of
debenture holders both in case of private.

II. Fund based functions:
a. Bill discounting: The holder of a time bill (payable after a specified
period) does not have to wait until maturity or the due date. If he needs
money, he can negotiate a discount on the bill with his banker. The
banker credits the net amount in the customer's account after deducting
a certain amount (discount). As a result, the bank purchases the bill and
credits the customer's account with the bill amount less the discount.
The drawee makes payment to the banker on the due date. If he does
not pay, the banker will recover the money from the customer who has
discounted the bill.

b. Venture capital: As explained above, venture capital is equity financing
in relatively new companies, Here the merchant bankers provide the
finance by themselves instead of helping to arrange for the venture
capital.

c. Bought out deals: A bought out deal is a method of sell ing securities to
the general public via a sponsor or underwriter (a bank, financial munotes.in

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22 institution, or an individual). The securities are listed on one or more
stock exchanges within a mutually agreed -upon time frame between the
company and the sponsor. This option saves the issuing company the
expenses and time associated with a public offering. The company may
reimburse the cost of holding the shares, or the sponsor may offer the
shares to the public at a premium in order to profit.

d. A lease is an agreement in which a company obtains the right to use a
capital asset such as machinery in exchange for a fee known as lease
rentals. The person (or company) who acquires the right is referred to
as the lessee. He is not given ownership of the asset. He only obtain s
the right to use the asset. The person (or company) who grants the right
is referred to as the lessor.

e. Leasing can be replaced with hire purchase. A hire purchase transaction
is one in which goods are purchased and sold on the condition that
payment is made in instalments. The buyer only receives possession of
the goods. He is not given ownership. He obtains ownership only after
the final instalment is paid.

f. Factoring: Factoring is an arrangement in which the factor purchases
account receivables (arisin g from credit sales of goods/services) and
pays the supplier or creditor in cash immediately. Thus, it is an
arrangement in which a financial institution or banker purchases a
firm's (client's) account receivables.

g. Forfaiting: Forfaiting is a type of fina ncing for international trade
receivables. It is the non -recourse purchase of receivables arising from
the export of goods and services by a banker or other financial
institution. The exporter relinquishes his right to future payment from
the buyer to whom goods have been supplied to the forfaiter. Forfaiting
is a technique that allows an exporter to sell his goods on credit while
receiving payment well ahead of the due date.
Test your Understanding:
1. What are various types of prospectus?
2. What factors lead t o Growth of Merchant bankers in India?
3. List the fee based services provided by the Merchant Banker.

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23 3
VENTURE CAPITAL FINANCING
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction & Meaning
3.2 Features of Venture Capital Finance
3.3 Stages of Venture Capital Financing
3.4 Venture Capital: Indian Scenario : Facts And Figures :
3.5 Summary Questions

3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) Learners will learn in details about venture capital financing and its
growth in India.
ii) Learners will be acquainted with various facts and figures pertaining
to venture capital funding in India.

3.1 INTRODUCTION & MEANING
The dearth o f Capital financing remains one of the largest barriers for the
businesses and start -ups in our country even today. The impact is even
higher in cases where the entrepreneur is unknown, lacks previous
experience or a brand, i.e an unknown technocrat. The I ndian Information
Technology sector and young lads have the huge unexplored potential for
start-ups involving creativity and innovation but what pulls the strings
back is the availability of initial capital investments. Due to limited credit
score (CIBIL S core) and the non -existence of required documentation, the
availability of loans from commercial banks and NBFC’s is difficult.
Raising public finance remains outside the gamut. Thus, the need for
financing these ventures who involved substantial risk but at the same
time have high potentialities was felt. This gave birth to the concept of
venture capital financing. Venture capital refers to long term investment
in form of equity and/ or conditional loans into these high -risk high
potential business ventur es.
The concept of venture capital is no new term in India but was first coined
in 1986. However, it was at the infancy stage where adoption of asset class
was carried upon by public financial institutions in consent with the
government only. The initiati on of the New Economic Policy in 1991 led
to transformation with stakes now involving private venture capitalists
from India and abroad. The growth remained underpinned until 2010, then
scaling up the venture capital financing both in terms of numbers and
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24 A Venture Capital Fund may be registered in form of trust or company
and has been defined to mean a fund established in the form of a trust or a
company including a body corporate and registered with SEBI which –
i) has a dedicated pool of capital, raised in a specified manner, and
ii) invests in venture capital undertakings in accordance with these
regulations.
3.2 FEATURES OF VENTURE CAPITAL FINANCE

1. Equity Capital: The investments here are in form of equity capital,
therefore they not only provide f inance but also bear the risk in the
business.

2. Returns to the investor: The investor here being the shareholder, the
returns are in form of profits and not interests through participation in
sale holdings. The conditional loans if provided earn royalties on sales
in most cases.

3. Limited Participation in Management: Though the venture capitalist is
technically the owner of the company their participation in managing
the day -to-day affairs of the company is limited. They act as advisors,
mentors and counsel lors in the company.

4. High Degree of Risk: Venture capitalists invest in ventures that are
floated by unknown technocrats and hence the element of risk and
uncertainties are high.
3.3 STAGES OF VENTURE CAPITAL FINANCING
The business needs have always be en evolving and need capital injections
at various stages of its life cycle. The broad classification can be
illustrated with help of below tree -diagram:

Source: Lalita Mutreja , CC BY -SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons


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25 A) Early -Stage Financing: It can be further classified into Seed capital,
Start -up Stage and Second Round Financing.
i) Seed Capital: This st age can also be referred to as pre -natal capital that
is associated with the research and development of the venture. At this
stage, the funds are required for laboratory testing or testing the waters
of the product before initializing commercialization. A t this stage, the
decision as to whether the product is to be launched and/or with
modifications is taken by the innovator. Being a high -risk proposition,
the capital requirements at this stage are contributed by the developer.
Venture Capitalists do provi de this capital but in form of loans and not
equity.
ii) Start - up Stage: Once the venture has been approved in its research and
development, the need for financing the commercial launch is felt. The
venture capitalists in most cases start their funding from this stage
onwards. At this stage, venture capitalists screen the entrepreneurial
capabilities along with the proposal before investing in the venture in
form of equity and/ or conditional loans. The funds so invested herein
have a wider time horizon.
iii) Second Round Financing: Liquidity injections or need for mid -term
financing is met through venture capitalists financing in form of debt
rather than equity. At this stage, the venture capitalists don’t deliberate
many discussions, as the ventures are more or less stable.
B) Later Stage Financing: Financial requirements of a business vary with
its life cycle, once the business reaches its growth stage, huge financial
requirements are once again required either to diversify or branch out in
various directions. Thi s financing is available in the following modes:
i) Expansion: As the business reaches to its peak, innovation and
expansion are the key drivers for its sustenance in the long run. Where
the venture cannot raise public finance directly, it may acquire or tak e
over an existing venture. In the second scenario where the entrepreneur
reaches its maximum equity, venture capitalists pump in debt funds in
form of conditional loans.
ii) Replacement: When the promoters of the company intend to exit the
investee company h owever the equity is not floated in the market but at
the same time growth potential curves for 3 -5 years, the venture
capitalists now replace the promoter’s equity with its funds.
iii) Turn Around: Ventures after a certain level reach maturity or need
change at various levels i.e in form of product, organization or
transformation that once again requires inflow of funds. Being risk in
nature, in -depth scrutiny is conducted, consultancy too may be
appointed. A substantial investment is done at this stage by the venture
capitalists.
iv) Buyout: Set of passive shareholders that desire to exit from the venture
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26 or outsiders. This set of arrangements is known as buyout deals. These
active share holders need additional finance that can be met through
venture capitalists.
3.4 VENTURE CAPITAL : INDIAN SCENARIO : FACTS
AND FIGURES :

Source: Statista 2020.

The above graph displays the inflow of venture capital funds in Indian
companies during the period 2013 -2020. As visualized above, spectacular
growth was achieved that jumped off from USD 4.8 billion to USD 6.1
billion during the period 2016 -17 and continued to remain constant in
2018. Though it dipped off in 2019 and 2020 but the investments sti ll
continue to substantial in midst of COVID -19 foreseeing a huge potential.

Source: Bain VC deals database; Crunchbase; IVCA; Bain analysis
The number of active venture capitalists have witnessed a substantial
increase even during the pandemic. The ma jor venture capitalists are
Tiger, Softbank, Inflection Point Ventures, Avataar Venture Partners, munotes.in

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27 Coatue Management, Beyond Next Ventures, Titan Capital and Arkam
Ventures.
Top start -ups that received more t han $100M funding in 2020
Asset Key investors Stage of
funding
Byju's" Tiger Global, Alkeon, BlackRock, General Atlantic, Late
Bond Capital, Silver Lake, Sands Capital, Owl Ventures
Zomato Fidelity, Kora Management, Luxor Capital, Mirae Asset, Late
Tiger Global, Steadview, Temasek, D1 Capital
FirstCry SoftBank Late
Unacademy* SoftBank, Nexus, Sequoia, General Atlantic Late
Dreamil Tiger Global, TPG, ChrysCapital, Footpath Ventures Late
Daily Hunt* Google, Microsoft, Falcon Edge, Sofina Group Late
Zenoti Advent International, Tiger Global, Steadview Capital Late
Swiggy* Samsung Ventures, Korea Investment Partners, Late
Naspers, Tencent, Mirae Asset, Meituan -Dianping
Postman Charles River, Insight, Nexus Late
Vedantu* GGV Capital, Coatue Management, WestBridge, Late
Omidyar Network, Tiger Global
Glance Google, Mithril Capital Late
Fresh To Home Iron Pillar, Investment Corporation of Dubai Late
PolicyBazaar SoftBank Late
Eightfold Capital One Growth Ventures, General Catalyst, Late
Lightspeed
HighRadius Citi Ventures, ICONIQ Capital, Susquehanna Growth Late
Eruditus Sequoia, Prosus Ventures, Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, Late
Ved Capital, Leeds Illuminate
CureFit Temasek, Accel, Epiq Capital Fund, Satyadharma Late
Investments, Ascent, PraTithi, Chiratae
Xpressbees Gaja Capital Partners, Investcorp India, NVP India Late
Bounce* B Capital, Falcon Edge, Omidyar Network, Maverick, Late
Qualcomm, Accel, Chiratae, S equoia
MindTickle Accel, Founder Fund, ICONIQ Capital, Qualcomm, Late
SoftBank
Razorpay Tiger Global, Sequoia, Matrix, Ribbit Capital, Late
Y Combinator
Biofourmis Sequoia, SoftBank, MassMutual, Openspace Late

Source: Bain VC deals database; Cr unchbase; IVCA; Bain analysis munotes.in

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28 3.5 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1. Explain the need and importance of Venture Capital financing.
2. Discuss in brief the various stages of Venture Capital financing.
3. Write a short note on: i) Seed Capital ii) Features of Venture Capital.
4. Carve out Indian scenario with respect to Venture Capital Finance in
India.
References :
1. Master Direction – Non-Banking Financial Company – Housing
Finance Company (Reserve Bank) Directions, 2021; Retrieved from
https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/notification/PDFs/MD10007CE48A
DE2FB4BF981444FE1349E3B71.PDF \

2. https://nhb.org.in/en/
Additional Reading :
1. IFC Report: Ev aluation of Leasing in India: March 2019:or Scan the
below QR code


2. India Venture Capital Report 2021: IVCA: Bain and Company or
Scan the below QR code


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29 4
SECURITIZATION
Unit Structure :
4.0 Learning objectives
4.1 Definition
4.2 Meaning of securitization
4.2.1 Participants in the securitization
4.2.2 Securitization mechanism
4.3 Securitization v/s Factoring
4.4 Features of securitization
4.5 Pass thr ough certificates
4.5.1 Meaning
4.5.2 Parties involved in the pass -through certificate transaction
4.5.3 Benefits of pass -through certificate
4.6 Special purpose vehicle
4.6.1 Meaning
4.6.2 Purpose of special purpose vehicle
4.6.3 Advantages of special purpose vehicle
4.6.4 Limitations of special purpose vehicle
4.7 Securitisable Assets
4.8 Benefits of Securitization
4.8.1 Benefits to the originators
4.8.2 Benefits to the investor
4.8.3 Benefits to the financial system
4.9 New guidelines on sec uritization
4.10 Summary
4.11 Exercise
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30 4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After learning this chapter, learners will be able to:
 understand the meaning of asset securitisation;
 describe various benefits of securitisation;
 Understand the difference between securi tization and factoring
 appreciate the various instruments of securitisation;
 explain various steps involved in the securitisation process; and
 analyse securitisation developments in the Indian market.
4.1 DEFINITION
“Securitisation” means acquisition of fi nancial assets by any [asset
reconstruction company] from any originator, whether by raising of funds
by such [asset reconstruction company] from [qualified buyers] by issue of
security receipts representing undivided interest in such financial assets or
otherwise;
4.2 MEANING OF SECURITIZATION
The process of converting illiquid loans into marketable securities is
known as securitization. The lender sells to a third party his or her right to
receive future payments from the borrowers and is compensated for it. As
a result, the lender is repaid at the time of securitization. These borrowers'
future cash flows are sold to investors in the form of marketable securities.
In India, securitization is mostly done through trust structures, in which
the underlying as sets are sold to a trustee company, which holds the
security in trust for investors. In this case, the trustee company is a
special -purpose vehicle (SPV) that issues securities in the form of pass -
through or pay -through certificates (PTCs). The underlying assets are
legally owned by the trustee. Investors who hold PTCs have a beneficial
interest in the underlying assets held by the trustee.



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31 4.2.1 PARTICIPANTS IN THE SECURITIZATION :
(i) Originator: They are original lender and seller of receivables. This is
typically a bank, or an NBFC, or a housing finance company in
India.
(ii) Seller: One who pools assets in order to securitize them. In India, the
seller and the originator are frequently the same person or entity.
(iii) Borrower: The counterparty to whom a loan is made by the
originator. Borrower payments (typically in the form of equated
monthly instalments) fund investor payouts.
(iv) The Issuer (SPV). They are the entity who issues marketable
securities (to which investors subscribe) and ensures that
transactions are carried out on specific terms. In India, the SPV is
usually established as a trust.
(v) Arranger: The securities are structured by investment banks. They
work with other parties (such as investors, rating agencies, and legal
counsel) to ensure that the transa ction goes smoothly.
(vi) Investor: The person who buys securiti es. Banks, insurance funds,
and mutual funds are the most common types of investors in India.
(vii) Credit Rating Agency: These agencies assess the risks associated
with each transaction, impose credit e nhancements commensurate
with the PTCs' ratings, monitor transaction performance until
maturity, and take appropriate rating actions.
(viii) Provider of credit enhancement. The originator is typically used as a
facility to cover any shortfall in pool collections in relation to
investor payouts. A third party can also provide the enhancement for
a fee.
(ix) Servicer: The entity that collects periodic instalments due from
individual borrowers, pays out to investors, follows up on delinquent
borrowers, and provides the ra ting agency with periodic information
about pool performance. In India, the originator is usually the
servicer.
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32 4.2.2 SECURITIZATION MECHANISM
Stage 1: The Identification Stage :
The first stage of securitization occurs when a financial institution or
banker, known as the ORIGINATOR, pools his lending such as mortgages
or account receivables into a homogeneous type based on interest rate,
maturity period, and so on. As a result, the first stage is known as the
Identification process stage.
Stage 2: Transf er of Assets to SPV :
The originator will transfer all of his assets to another institution, which
will aid in the securitization process. SPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLE
(S.P.V) or Trust converts the assets into securities. The Trustees could be
retired high cour t judges with experience in asset valuation and finance.
There are also merchant bankers who act as SPVs and issuers. The
reputation of merchant bankers will aid in the issuance of debt
instruments, which will be oversubscribed.
Stage 3: Issue stage :
The SPV categorises various assets into various types of securities based
on their maturity date and interest rate.
The SPV offers the following securities to investors:
 Pass through certificates: Pass through certificates receive payments
from assets such as housing loans, from which payments for certificates
of deposits are met as and when they are due.
 Pay Through certificates: In this case, multiple maturity structure
certificates will be issued based on the maturing pattern of various
assets, so that the r espective certificates will be paid as and when the
assets mature.
 Interest -only certificates: These certificates will pay interest based on
the earnings from the assets securitized.
 Principal -only certificates: From asset realisation, only the principal
amount will be paid on the certificates.
Stage 4: Redemption stage :
Payments received from various assets are used to redeem various credit
instruments issued during the redemption stage of securitization. This is
accomplished by the creator himself. In so me cases, a separate servicing
agent may be appointed to handle collection work in exchange for a
commission. The servicing agent's job will be to discharge the assets by
collecting principal and interest and settling the debt instruments.
For example, a h ousing loan may be collected with principal and interest,
and debt instruments such as certificates of deposit may be satisfied as a
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33 A pass through certificate, as previously mentioned, can be either with or
without recourse. In the case of a recou rse certificate, if payment is not
made on time, the SPV will hold the originator liable. As a result, SPVs
play an important role in resolving investor claims.
Stage 5: Credit rating stage :
As debt instruments issued to the public, the pass through certi ficate
issued by SPV must be credit rated. The financial institutions issuing these
debt instruments will be subjected to credit rating, which is legally
required in some countries. Debt instruments are traded in the secondary
market, particularly for inte rest swaps.
The following are the various assets which can be used for Securitization
by financial institutions.
 Housing loan granted to individuals or institutions
 Hypothecation of vehicle loan
 Leasing finance, especially financial lease
 Supply bills belo nging to government departments
 Outstanding on credit cards
 Long -term loans granted to reputed parties.
4.3 SECURITIZATION V/S FACTORING
While both factoring and securitization involve capitalising the company's
receivables, there are significant differenc es between the two. Let us have
a clear understanding about the same
Securitization Factoring
1. Meaning
Securitization is the process of
converting illiquid assets into liquid
assets by converting longer duration
cash flows into shorter duration cash
flows is known as securitization. Factoring is an agreement between
a bank and a company in which the
financial institution purchases a
company's book debts and pays the
money to the company in exchange
for receivables.
2. Parties to the Process
In the case of s ecuritization, there
are many investors who invest in the
securitized asset. In the case of factoring, there are
two parties involved viz. the bank
and the company.
3. Credit Rating
Since securitization involves many
investors, it is necessary to obtain a
credit rating before proceeding with
receivables securitization. Since factoring only involves two
parties i.e. the bank and the
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34
4. Duration of the securities involved in transactions
Securitization is done for medium
term or long term receivables of the
company. Factoring is used for short -term
receivables ranging from one
month to six months.
5. Credit Risk
Securitization is done without
recourse i.e.; Originator will take
portion of credit risk. Factoring can be with or without
recourse.
6. Related
Securitization is generally related to
loans Factoring is related to receivables

4.4 FEATURES OF SECURITIZATION
a. Marketability: The very purpose of securitization is to ensure that
financial claims are marketable. As a resu lt, the instrument is designed
to be marketable. This is one of the most important characteristics of a
securitized instrument, and the others that follow are mostly imported
to ensure it. Marketability is comprised of two concepts:
(1) the legal and syst ematic possibility of marketing the instrument,
and
(2) the existence of a market for the instrument.
Traditional mercantile law took a contemporaneous view of
marketable documents in terms of the legal possibility of marketing
the instrument. In most ju risdictions around the world, laws dealing
with marketable instruments (also known as negotiable instruments)
were mostly limited to what was in circulation at the time. If the
instrument is loaded on to a few professional investors with no
possibility of a liquid market, the purpose of securitization is defeated.
A securitized instrument is given liquidity by either introducing it into
an organised market (such as securities exchanges) or by one or more
agencies acting as market makers, i.e.; agreeing to b uy and sell the
instrument at either pre -determined or market -determined prices.
b. Merchantable Quality: For a securitized product to be marketable, it
must be of saleable quality. This concept is acceptable to merchants in
normal trade in the case of physic al goods. When applied to financial
products, it means that the financial commitments embodied in the
instruments are secure to the satisfaction of the investors. Because
investor satisfaction is a relative term, the originator of the securitized
instrumen t secures the instrument based on the investors' needs.
Evaluation of quality and certification by an independent expert, i.e.,
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35 rating is intended to assist the lay investor, who is unli kely to be able
to assess the level of risk involved. In the case of receivables
securitization, the concept of quality changes dramatically, making
rating a universal requirement for securitization. As previously stated,
securitization is the purchase by investors of a claim on the debtors of
the originator. As a result, the quality of the debtors' claim becomes
important, allowing investors to respond purely on the credit rating of
the debtors (or a portfolio of debtors) and thus make the instrument
compl etely independent of the originators' own rating.
c. The primary goal of securitization is to distribute the product widely.
The extent of distribution desired by the originator is based on a cost -
benefit analysis of the costs and benefits that can be realise d. Wider
distribution has a cost benefit in that the issuer can market the product
with a lower return, resulting in a lower financial cost to him.
However, a large investor base entails high distribution and servicing
costs.
In practise, retail investors still struggle to understand securitization
issues. As a result, the majority of securitizations are privately placed
with professional investors. However, retail investors are likely to be
drawn into purchasing securitized products in the future.
d. Commodit ization: Securitization is a commoditization process in
which the basic idea is to take the outcome of this process and place it
in the capital market. Thus, the end result of any securitization process,
regardless of its application, is the creation of ce rtain instruments that
can be traded on the market.
e. Homogeneity: The product must be in homogenous lots in order to be
marketable.
4.5 PASS THROUGH CERTIFICATES
4.5.1 MEANING :
A Pass -Through Certificate (PTC) is a financial instrument that allows the
certificate's holder or investor to earn a fixed income from the certificate's
proceeds. It is issued to the investor in exchange for the asset or mortgage -
backed securities that have been pooled together in a single securitized
loan package held by the issue r. Such certificates are typically issued by
financial institutions such as banks, asset management firms, and
insurance companies. Customers of such institutions can obtain a large
number of mortgages. These mortgages are bundled into a large
investment a nd sold to other financial institutions such as asset
management companies (AMC) or insurance companies. AMCs or
Insurance Companies then create a debt instrument and sell it to the
investor as a Pass -Through Certificate that delivers fixed income to the
investor. To better understand Pass -Through Certificates, one must first
understand the concept of Securitization. Banks offer a variety of loans,
such as home loans, commercial loans, and auto loans. These loans
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36 stated, securitization is the process of converting these receivables or
income into debt instruments that are then sold to individual investors. As
previously explained, a Special Purpose Vehicle is established to issue
these d ebt instruments to investors. When an investor purchases these debt
instruments, the Special Purpose Vehicle issues them a Pass -Through
Certificate.
4.5.2 PARTIES INVOLVED IN THE PASS -THROUGH
CERTIFICATE TRANSACTION :
a. The Originator: The transaction's crea tor is known as the originator.
The originator creates the structures required to complete the
transaction. The proceeds from the sale of the assets on Originator's
books are received by the company.
b. The Special Purpose Vehicle: The Pass -Through Certificat es are
distributed to investors by the Special Purpose Vehicle. The SPV is
typically governed by independent trustees/directors who act in their
own best interests as a low -capitalized entity with narrowly defined
purposes and activities.
c. The Investor: Ind ividuals and institutional investors, such as Mutual
Funds, Insurance Companies, Pension Funds, and other financial
institutions, are examples of investors. They buy the certificates from
the total pool of receivables and are paid in interest according to the
pattern agreed upon by the parties.
4.5.3 BENEFITS OF PASS -THROUGH CERTIFICATE :
Pass-Through Certificates provide numerous advantages to both lenders
and issuers
 Lenders can use Pass -Through Certificates to convert illiquid assets
into cash -generatin g liquid assets.
 Securitization allows funds to be transferred from the inefficient debt
market to the more efficient capital market.
 Securitization can help a company's debt -equity ratio.
 The underlying assets of Pass -Through Certificates are typically
tangible. In the event of a default/failure to repay the loan associated
with the object, the lender has the right to seize the item as payment.
 Because banks or other financial institutions package these loans into
a securitized investment, such as a Pass -Through Certificate, potential
investors may consider the investment to be more stable than other
types of investments.
 Originators/Banks: Pass -Through Certificates are issued by
originators or banks to protect themselves from risk by transferring
their rec eivables to the government or other financial institutions that
buy debt securities. The originators can write off these assets from
their books, allowing them to make more loans to borrowers and
increase their liquidity.
 Investors: Investing in Pass -Throu gh Certificates can provide a steady
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37 4.6 SPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLE
4.6.1 MEANING :
A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV), also known as a Special Purpose Entity
(SPE) or a Special Purpose Corporation (SPC), is a legal entity formed for
a single, well -defined, specific, and narrow purpose. An SPV can only be
formed for lawful purposes and cannot be formed for activities that are
prejudicial or contrary to public policy. It is primarily a business
organisation of individuals or entities who ar e eligible to join the
association. SPVs are primarily used to raise capital by collateralizing
future receivables. SPVs are primarily formed to raise capital from the
market. SPVs are formed as Companies only and are subject to the
provisions, rules, and regulations of the Companies Act, 2013. They are an
artificial juridical person. A SPV has the same rights and benefits as a
company formed under the Companies Act of 2013. Members of an SPV
are typically the companies and individuals who sponsor the entit y. SPVs
have a limited scope of operation, whereas other companies can carry out
all of the activities permitted by the Memorandum of Association (MoA).
In the case of an SPV, the MoA is quite narrow. This is done primarily to
reassure lenders who are conc erned about their investment.
4.6.2 PURPOSE OF SPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLE

a. Risk Mitigation :
Any company's regular operations involve a significant amount of risk.
The establishment of SPVs assists the parent company in legally isolating
the risks involve d in projects or operations.
b. Securitization of Loans/Receivables :
One of the most common reasons for forming an SPV is to securitize loans
and other receivables. In the case of mortgage -backed securities, the bank
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38 it has. As a result, this special purpose vehicle allows its investors to
receive any monetary benefits before the company's other debtors or
stakeholders.
c. Easily Transfer Non Transferable Assets :
For the purpose of easily transferring non -transferable assets, an SPV is
formed to own such assets. If the parent company wishes to transfer the
assets, it sells the SPV as a whole rather than splitting them up or
obtaining multiple permits. Such situations arise during mer gers and
acquisitions processes.
d. Hold Company’s Key Properties :
An SPV is sometimes formed to hold the property of a company. When
property sales outnumber capital gains for the company, it will choose to
sell the SPV rather than the properties. It wil l assist the parent company in
paying taxes on capital gains rather than the proceeds of the property's
sale.
4.6.3 ADVANTAGES OF SPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLE :
a. By forming SPVs, private companies and institutions can gain easier
access to capital markets.
b. The m ost common reason for forming an SPV is to securitize loans;
generally, the interest rates payable on securitized bonds are lower
than those offered on the parent company's corporate bonds.
c. Since the assets of the company can be held by the SPV, they are s afe
and secure. When a company experiences financial difficulties, it
reduces the credit risk for investors and stakeholders.
d. The SPV's credit rating remains good, so investors are confident in
purchasing the bonds.
The company is owned entirely by its sha reholders and investors.
4.6.4 LIMITATIONS OF SPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLE :
a. The company would have to take back the assets if the SPV was
closed, which would incur significant costs.
b. The establishment of a special purpose vehicle may limit the parent
company's ability to raise funds.
c. Direct control over some of the parent's assets may be diluted, which
may reduce the company's ownership at the time of dilution.
d. There is a high risk of severe complications for the companies that
created these special vehicles if the regulations change.
e. If the SPV sells an asset, the parent company's balance sheet will
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39 f. Because it lacks the same market credibility as the sponsor or parent
company, the special purpose vehicle may have less access to capital
and raise capital from the public.
4.7 SECURITISABLE ASSETS
All financial assets can be securitized by definition, but most loans and
other assets that generate receivables (such as commercial or consumer
debt) can be converted into a tradeable item with monetary value.
Scrutinization assists businesses in raising funds and generating additional
income from financial debts or assets, allowing banks to lend out more
money while investors diversify their portfolios and earn higher returns.
All of these instruments fall into o ne of two categories of securities:
Asset -backed securities :
Commercial debt, student loans, Bank loans to businesses, Automobile
loans and other non -mortgage loans are examples of asset -backed
securities. These are recorded as assets in the books of the financial
institution providing the credit. The government has authorised these
organisations to pursue the personal assets of defaulters who fail to make
timely payments.
Mortgage -backed securities :
Mortgage -backed securities are bonds that are backed by real estate or
loans with collateral in the form of a vehicle, for example. Investors who
purchase these securities receive interest payments on the underlying
debts, as banks frequently request that borrowers send the interest amount
directly to these in vestors.
4.8 BENEFITS OF SECURITIZATION
4.8.1 BENEFITS TO THE ORIGINATORS :
a. Risk Management: Capital can be better used by reconfiguring
portfolios to better meet risk -weighted capital adequacy norms.
b. Unblocks Capital: Properly structured securitisation tr ansactions allow
originators to focus on the expansion of their franchise rather than the
expansion of their capital base. Originators' competitive advantage will
be built on efficient marketing, tighter credit management, and lower
cost of servicing rathe r than the ability to raise capital. Competitors'
costs and capabilities are no longer muted; rather, they are highlighted
and magnified.
c. Overcomes Uncertainty of Profit and increases Profitability:
Securitisation directly rewards better credit quality by lowering the
costs of credit enhancement and funding. This provides a clear
incentive for institutions to improve loan origination quality. In short,
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40 d. Better Financial Position: Securitisation al lows weaker firms to exit
without triggering a downward spiral. Consider the recent performance
of the NBFC sector. The emphasis on limiting access to public
deposits by NBFCs, regulators, and rating agencies has forced even
established NBFCs out of busine sses that they have successfully run
for decades. If the emphasis had been on assisting these institutions in
securitizing their assets, their financials would have improved and
fewer risks would have been retained on their balance sheets.
4.8.2 BENEFITS T O THE INVESTOR :
a. Quality Investment: Securitization provides wise investment options
that provide investors with dependability by providing mortgaged and
asset -backed securities.
b. Better Returns: Through the securitization process, investors gain
access to superior returns. It provides securities of companies with a
stronger market position.
c. Diversified portfolio: Securitized bonds offer investors a well -
diversified portfolio created by pooling the assets of a company. These
instruments differ from other typ es of investments.
d. Less Credit Risk: Because the assets offered through the securitization
process are rated by good credit rating agencies, they carry a lower
degree of credit risk. In the market, such assets have a higher
creditworthiness.
4.8.3 BENEFITS TO THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM :
a. Securitisation divides the lending and funding process into discrete
steps, allowing for specialisation and economies of scale. As a result,
the system's overall costs are reduced, and consumers pay lower
borrowing costs in the e nd.
b. The economy's asset turnover rate is increasing. Housing Finance
Companies, for example, may have insufficient balance sheet size to
absorb the entire risk but can securitize loans in excess of what they
are comfortable with.
c. As a result of the precedi ng, the volume of resources available
increases significantly. This is significant given that our economy as a
whole, and specific sectors like housing and infrastructure in
particular, are capital -strapped. Eg: Mortgage securitisation allows a
breakaway from the "specialist circuit" of housing finance into a larger
pool of resources. Furthermore, securitisation facilitates the flow of
funds from capital -rich to capital -poor regions.
d. Risk is redistributed from high default to low default regions in unison
with the flow of funds across regions. Securitised instruments reach a
broader market, provide more appropriate instruments, and are more
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41 e. Credit, liquidity, interest rate, forex, and catastrophe risks are
separated and distributed to market intermediaries best suited to absorb
them. As a result, the financial system becomes more stable.
f. The debt market as a whole grows in depth. Other countries'
experiences have confirmed this fact. Capital markets can play a more
direct role in infrastructure and other long -term projects.
4.9 NEW GUIDELINES ON SECURITIZATION
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has issued separate master directions on
loan exposure transfer and standard asset securitization. These master
directi ves were issued after taking into account public comments on
draft rules issued on June 8, 2020. Based on the examination of the
comments received, the Reserve Bank has issued the Master Direction –
Reserve Bank of India (Securitisation of Standard Assets ) Directions,
2021.
Unless otherwise specified, the provisions of these directions apply to the
following entities (collectively referred to as lenders in these directions):
Scheduled Commercial Banks (excluding Regional Rural Banks); All
India Term Finan cial Institutions (NABARD, NHB, EXIM Bank, and
SIDBI); Small Finance Banks (as permitted under Operating Guidelines
for Small Finance Banks dated October 6, 2016 and as amended from time
to time); and All Non -Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) including
Housing Finance Companies (HFCs). These directions will be applicable
to securitisation transactions undertaken subsequent to the issue of these
directions.
General requirements for securitisation:
A. Assets eligible for securitisation
Lenders, including In dian bank overseas branches, shall not engage in
securitisation activities or assume securitisation exposures as described
below:
a. Re-securitisation exposures;
b. Structures in which short -term instruments, such as commercial paper,
are issued against long -term assets held by
a. Re-securitisation exposures;
b. Synthetic securitisation; and
c. Securitisation with the underlying assets listed below:
i. revolving credit facilities
ii. restructured loans and advances in the specified period;
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42 iv. refinance exposures of AIFIs; and
v. Loans with bullet payments of both principal and interest.
B. Minimum Retention Requirement (MRR)
The MRR is primarily intended to ensure that originators continue to have
a vested interest in the perf ormance of securitised assets, allowing them to
conduct proper due diligence on loans to be securitised.
a. The MRR for underlying loans with original maturities of 24 months
or less shall be 5% of the book value of the loans being securitized.
b. The MRR for un derlying loans with original maturities of more than
24 months, as well as loans with bullet repayments, as specified in
Clause 6 proviso, shall be 10% of the book value of the loans being
securitised.
C. Standards of Origin :
Underwriting standards for se curitised exposures should not be less
stringent than those applied to exposures retained on the originator's
balance sheet.
D. Priorities for payment and observability :
To avoid unexpected repayment profiles during the life of a securitisation,
the prior ities of payments for all liabilities in all circumstances should be
clearly defined at the time of securitisation, and appropriate legal comfort
regarding their enforceability should be provided.
E. Maximum Retained Exposures by Originators :
An originato r's total exposure to securitisation exposures belonging to a
specific securitisation structure or scheme should not exceed 20% of the
total securitisation exposures created by such structure or scheme.
F. Issuance and Listing :
The minimum ticket size for securitisation notes issuance shall be Rs.1
crore. Listing of securitisation notes, particularly in relation to specific
product classes, such as RMBS, and/or generally above a certain
threshold, is recommended but not required. In any case, any offer of
securitisation notes to fifty or more people in an issuance would be
required to be listed in accordance with Securities and Exchange Board of
India regulations.
G. Conditions to be satisfied by the special purpose entity :
The SPE must meet the following requirements:
a. Any transaction between the originator and the SPE must be conducted
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43 b. In its title or name, the SPE and the trustee should not resemble or
imply any connection or relationship with the originator of the assets.
c. Except as expr essly permitted by these guidelines, the originator
should have no ownership, proprietary, or beneficial interest in the
SPE. The originator should not own any stock in the SPE.
d. The originator should not have more than one non -veto representative
on the SP E board, provided the board has at least four members and
independent directors are in majority.
e. If the SPE is established as a trust, the originator shall not exercise
control over the SPE and the trustees, either directly or indirectly, and
shall not set tle the trust deed, if any. The originator is not permitted to
have any ownership, proprietary, or beneficial interest in the trustees.
The trust deed, if any, should detail the functions to be performed by
the trustee, their rights and obligations, as wel l as the investors' rights
and obligations in relation to the securitised assets. The trustee should
only perform trusteeship functions with respect to the SPE and should
not conduct any other business with the SPE.
These are some of the highlight features of the new guidelines on
securitization.
4.10 SUMMARY
Asset securitisation is the process of packaging, underwriting, and selling
loan assets and future receivables arising from trade and business activities
as securities. The originator (seller of loan assets), trust or company
(special purpose vehicle), merchant bankers, rating agencies, and
institutional investors, among others, are all involved in the securitisation
process. Loan assets and receivables can be securitized either with or
without recours e. In the securitisation process, three instruments are used:
pass through certificates, pay through certificates, and stripped
securities.The first securitisation transaction in India occurred in 1991,
when ICICI Ltd. and Citi Bank agreed to securitize IC ICI Ltd.'s loan
assets. Since then, the securitisation market has grown slowly but steadily.
Many commercial banks and mortgage lenders have securitized their loan
portfolios. In the near future, India's securitisation market is expected to
grow significan tly.
4.11 EXERCISE
A. Choose the correct alternative
1. The process of selling trade debts of a client to a financial intermediary
is called _________.
(a) Sale (b) Securitisation (c) Factoring (d) Bill Discounting

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44 2. The term _____ is defined as a central l ocation for keeping securities
on deposit.
(a) Depository (b) Instrument (c) Institutions (d) Broker
3. The Certificate of Initial Registration for an underwriter with
Securities and Exchange Board of India remains valid for how many
years?
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 7
4. There are ________ categories of Merchant bankers.
(a) two (b) three (c) four (d) five
5. For the assets with original maturity of more than 24 months, the
minimum retention requirement is __________ of the cash flows.
(a) 5% (b) 10% (c) 12% (d) 15%
Answer: 1 – (b); 2 – (a); 3 – (c); 4 – (c); 5 – (b)
Answer in Brief :
1) What exactly do you mean by "securitisation"?
2) Explain to originators and investors the various benefits of
securitisation.
3) Describe the securitisation process.
4) Define t he roles of the various parties involved in the securitisation
process.
5) What are the various securitisation instruments?
6) Describe the characteristics of asset securitization as a structured
financial product in the Indian market.
References :
https://www.citeman.com/
https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/PublicationReportDetails.aspx?ID=159
https://www.wallstreetmojo.com/special -purpose -vehicle -spv/
https://commercemates.com/
https://www.rbi.org.in/Scr ipts/BS_Press ReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=49920
https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_ViewMasDirections.aspx?id=12165

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45 5
HIRE PURCHASE FINANCE
Unit Structure :
5.0 Learning Objectives

5.1 Hire Purchase System: An Introduction

5.2 Meaning of Hire Purchase

5.3 Hire Purchase Agreement

5.4 Characteristics of Hire Purchase System

5.5 Terminologies Used In Hire Purcha se Agreement

5.6 Advantages And Disadvantages of Hire Purchase System

5.7 Distinguish Between Lease Financing And Hire Purchase

5.8 Understanding Instalment Credit

5.9 Sources Of Finance In India
5.10 Exercise
5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the basics of Hire Purchase system
 Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of Hire Purchase
system
 Clearly distinguish between Lease financing and hire purchase
 Understand the intricacies of instalment credit and its types
 Learn in detail the diffe rent sources of finance in India
5.1 HIRE PURCHASE SYSTEM: AN INTRODUCTION
The demand for luxurious consumer goods has recorded an upsurge in the
last decade, but the real increase in the purchasing power has failed to
grow parallelly. This gap between dem and and actual purchasing power
has given rise to hire purchase system.
Under hire purchase system the hire purchaser can get the full possession
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46 time specified in the agreement. This enables the hire purchaser to fulfill
his demand without making the full payment at once. However, the
ownership is transferred from the hire vendor to the hire purchaser only
after the payment of the last installment. In this case even if the last
install ment is defaulted the hire vendor possess the right to repossess the
goods without compensating the hire purchaser.
5.2 MEANING OF HIRE PURCHASE
Hire purchase is a method of purchasing expensive consumer items in
which the buyer makes a down payment and then pays the remainder plus
interest in instalments. In the United Kingdom, the term hire purchase is
often used, although in the United States, it is more commonly known as
an instalment plan. However, there may be a distinction between the two:
With som e payment arrangements, the buyer obtains ownership rights as
soon as the contract with the seller is signed. Ownership of the product is
not officially transferred to the buyer until all payments have been made
under a hire purchase arrangement. Hire purc hase agreements are similar
to rent -to-own deals in that the lessee has the option to purchase at any
time throughout the contract, such as rent -to-own autos. Hire purchase,
like rent -to-own, can help consumers with bad credit by spreading the
expense of p ricey things that they would otherwise be unable to pay over a
longer period of time. However, it is not the same as a credit extension
because the customer does not technically own the goods until all
payments are made.
Hire purchase arrangements provide more protection to the seller than
other sales or leasing options for unsecured items because ownership is
not transferred until the end of the agreement. This is because the things
can be repossessed more readily if the buyer fails to make the repayments .
5.3 HIRE PURCHASE AGREEMENT
A hire purchase agreement is one in which goods are let on hire and the
hire has the option to purchase them in accordance with the terms of the
agreement, and it includes agreements in which:
1. Possession of goods is deliv ered by the owner thereof to a person or
condition that such person pays the agreed amount in periodic
instalments.
2. The property in the goods will pass to such a person upon payment of
the final instalment.
3. Such a person has the right to cancel the a greement at any time before
the property is transferred. Each Hire Purchase Agreement must be in
writing and signed by all parties involved.
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47 5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF HIRE PURCHASE
SYSTEM
1. The seller delivers the goods to the buyer.
2. Buyer agrees to pay the hire purchase price (i.e., cash price + interest)
3. Instalments are treated as hire charges until the last instalment is paid.
4. Following the payment of the final instalment, ownership is transferred
to the buyer.
5. In the event of a buyer payment default, the seller has the right to
repossess the goods, as ownership remains with the seller until the final
instalment is paid.
Because of the hire purchase nature of these transactions, transactions
with the aforementioned characteristics are referred to as hire purchase
transactions.
5.5 TERMINOLOGIES USED IN HIRE PURCHASE
AGREEMENT
1. Hire Purchaser: He is buyer in hire purchase agreement.
2. Hire Vendor: He is seller in a hire purchase agreement.
3. Cash Price: It is the amount to be paid for out right purchase in cash.
4. Down Payment: It is the of initial payment payable by the hire
purchaser at the time of entering into a hire purchase agreement.
5. Hire Purchase Price: It is the total amount payable by the hire purchaser
to the hire vendor of g oods are purchased under the hire purchase
system.
5.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HIRE
PURCHASE SYSTEM
Advantages of Hire Purchase System
1. Hire purchase agreements, like leasing, enable enterprises with
inefficient working capital to deploy assets .
2. Since the payments are recorded as expenses, it may be more tax -
efficient than traditional loans - though any savings will be offset by
any tax gains from depreciation.
3. Hire purchase agreements can be used by businesses that require
expensive mach inery, such as construction, manufacturing, plant hire,
printing, road freight, transport, and engineering, as well as startups
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48 4. A hire purchase arrangement can boost a company's return on assets and
return on capital employed (ROCE) (ROA). This is because the
corporation does not have to incur as much debt to acquire assets.
Disadvantages of Hire Purchase System
1. Hire purchase agreements are frequently more expensive in the long
term than paying in full for an asset purchase.
2. This is due to the fact that they can have substantially higher interest
rates. They can also represent more administrative complexity for
businesses.
3. Furthermore, hire purchase and instalment systems may entice
individuals and businesses to purchase products that are beyond their
means. They may also end up paying an extremely high interest rate,
which is not required to be declared publicly.
4. As long as the requisite minimum payments have been made, hire
purchase custome rs can return the products, declaring the original
agreement unenforceable.
5. Purchasers, on the other hand, suffer a significant loss on returned or
repossessed products since they lose the money, they have paid toward
the purchase up to that point.
5.7 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN LEASE FINANCING AND
HIRE PURCHASE
Following points showcase the difference between Hire purchase and
Lease financing
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49 5.8 UNDERSTANDING INSTALMENT CREDIT
Instalment credit is just a loan that you make fixed payments on over a
specif ied time period. The loan's interest rate, repayment duration, and
fees will all determine how much you pay each month. Mortgages, vehicle
loans, and personal loans are all examples of instalment loans. Timely
payments on instalment loans, like other credi t accounts, can help you
earn and maintain good credit. If you qualify for an instalment loan, your
credit score will determine your interest rates and conditions. When you
take out an instalment loan, you borrow a certain amount of money and
make fixed mo nthly payments until the debt is paid off. An instalment
loan might be repaid over months or years. Its interest rate could be
constant or variable, which means it could rise or fall in the future.
Additional expenses, such as origination or late fees, may apply to
instalment loans. Before taking out an instalment loan, it's critical to
carefully read the loan agreement to understand exactly how much you'll
pay.
There are different types of instalment loans. Let us discuss a few of them;
Mortgage: Mortgage is a loan used to purchase a home. The house itself
serves as security, so if you fail to make payments, your lender may
repossess it. Mortgages are typically available in 10, 15 or 30 -year
durations, with either a fixed or adjustable interest rate. You'l l also have to
pay closing expenses, fees, and maybe private mortgage insurance if your
down payment is less than 20% of the home's purchase price.
Car loan: Car loans, like mortgages, often need a down payment. The
more your down payment, the less your in stalment loan will be. A
automobile loan, like a mortgage, uses your vehicle as collateral, which
means your car could be repossessed if you do not pay the loan as agreed.
Personal loan: A personal loan can be used for a variety of objectives,
such as debt consolidation or financing a home improvement. Personal
loans are unsecured, which means they are not secured by collateral, such
as mortgages or auto loans. As a result, depending on your credit score,
their interest rates might be as high as 36%.
Quite often, instalment loans are confused with Revolving credit. Let us
understand the difference between the two.
A revolving credit account, unlike an instalment credit account, allows
you to carry a balance from month to month. Revolving accounts include
credit cards and home equity lines of credit.
You determine how much to charge each month and how much to repay
on a revolving credit account. When you carry a balance from month to
month, interest is added to your overall balance. While you are not forced
to pay off the entire balance each month, the lender will offer you with a
credit limit, or the maximum amount you can charge. It will also assign
you a minimum monthly payment, which may vary according on your
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50 Instalment loans can help you attain some of the most frequent and desired
financial goals, such as owning a home or a car, by allowing you to repay
a purchase over time. Making on -time instalment loan payments and
repaying the d ebt as agreed will improve your credit. However, like with
any sort of credit, only seek out loans that you truly require, and check
your credit score before applying to see what interest rates you may be
eligible for. Take the effort to enhance your credi t score if necessary
before applying to guarantee you get the best rate and conditions possible.
5.9 SOURCES OF FINANCE IN INDIA
Typically, a household not only invests from its own savings, but it also
has excess that it lends to other units through finan cial institutions. Banks,
capital markets, and so on.
The business's savings, which include depreciation and retained earnings,
are typically less than its investment. As a result, it borrows from financial
institutions as well. The government, too, financ es a portion of its
investment using cash generated internally.
These are the results of a surplus of tax and other income over
consumption spending + transfers. If and when a shortfall occurs, it
borrows from the financial system. Approximately half of al l investment is
self-financed.
1. Equity and Bonds - A significant portion of the funding for fixed
investments [buildings, machinery, etc.] comes from various types of
equity or shares, such as ordinary, cumulative, and non -cumulative
preference shares. The se shares carry varying degrees of risk and are
tailored to the temperament of different investors. The recent tendency
is to issue shares in ten rupee denominations to allow the greatest
number of individuals to engage in providing long -term finance. The
creditworthiness of industry promoters and the profitability of
industries determine how much money savers put in stocks. In this
manner, industries are not burdened with interest, and hence do not
become embroiled in issues as a result of this during a re cession or
depression.

2. Internal Sources of Finance - The saving of the unit itself is one source
that is quantitatively significant. It could be a family, a business, or the
government. Typically, a household not only invests from its own
savings, but it also has excess that it lends to other units through
financial institutions. Banks, capital markets, and so on. The business's
savings, which include depreciation and retained earnings, are typically
less than its investment. As a result, it borrows from f inancial
institutions as well. The government, too, finances a portion of its
investment using cash generated internally. These are the results of a
surplus of tax and other income over consumption spending + transfers.
If and when a shortfall occurs, it b orrows from the financial system.
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51 3. Public Deposits - Public deposits are another source. It is also a debt
product, mostly used for short -term financing. People under this system
deposit their money with these companies or managing authorities for a
period of six months, a year, two years, or three years. Depositors
receive a fixed rate of return. They have the right to request a refund at
any time. Companies need this money to meet their working capital
requirements. However, this source of funding is untr ustworthy
because depositors can request a refund at any time. And if the refund
occurs at a time when a corporation is in desperate need of finances,
things become even more complicated.

4. Loans from banks - Commercial banks can also give funds for short -
term needs or working capital. Loans are made with the assurance of
government securities and company shares. Overdraft and credit limit
loans are made available. Commercial banks are often hesitant to invest
in stock purchases. The reason for this is that most public deposits are
for a limited period of time, and banks cannot afford to incur any risks
by investing public funds in stocks. They can, however, do something
by purchasing corporate debentures.

5. Managing agency system - Managing agents provided a crucial service
in the promotion of industries inside the country in the past when there
was a severe scarcity of industrial finance and an almost complete lack
of financial institutions, and the capital market in the true sense did not
even exist. Of cou rse, it is true that the majority of their funds were
used to develop consumer products industries. However, over time, the
system developed flaws and became beset by major deficiencies. The
management of so many units, both good and bad, and the productio n
of a wide range of products resulted in certain ills. The payments that
managing agents collected for themselves, such as interest on their
money, commission for their services, and so on, were excessive and
out of proportion to the firms' paying ability and/or the work
accomplished by those agents. For these reasons, the government
outlawed the system in 1970.

6. Indigenous Bankers - Despite the emergence of new financial
institutions, indigenous bankers provide financial assistance to a few
large -scale co mpanies, particularly during times of stress, for both fixed
capital and working capital. However, they have primarily financed
small -scale businesses. In the absence of adequate institutional finance,
many industries have been forced to rely on indigenous bankers. These
banks impose exorbitant interest rates, making financing an expensive
proposition. However, the role of these banks, even as a source of
funding for small businesses, is dwindling.

7. Development Finance Institutions - These institutions, whi ch were
established with the assistance of the government to fill a void in
industrial finance and to advance the goal of planning, cater to the
needs of both large and small companies. Industrial Development Bank
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52 and General Insurance Corporation of India, Industrial Reconstruction
Bank of India, State Financial Corporations, and State Industrial
Development Corporations are the new institutions that provide
industrial finance. These i nstitutions provide a large amount of funding
for the establishment of new industries, as well as for addressing their
various needs in various forms. These also ensure and monitor the use
of money in predetermined ways. As such, they are consistent with t he
current industrial development scenario.

8. Foreign Capital - External capital has been used to supplement
domestic finance in satisfying the needs of industrial financing,
primarily for long -term purposes. This has taken several shapes.
Foreign help (co ncessional loans) from foreign countries and foreign
institutions (such as the World Bank) has been extended to the
government. Some of this aid has also gone to the private sector. A
portion of foreign capital have come through foreign corporations with
Indian subsidiaries in our country or Multinational Corporations with
Indian branches. Some international companies have contributed
capital as part of direct investments or collaborations with Indian firms.
Non-resident Indians have also made investments i n partnership with
Indians. Thus, there are numerous sorts of industrial finance. And so
are financial instruments. Several of them are modems. Shares,
debentures, and financial institution loans are examples. The old ones,
such as public deposits, managin g agents' finances, and indigenous
bankers' finances, are on the decline. This is correct, as these are neither
sufficient nor acceptable for satisfying the needs of current industrial
growth.
5.10 EXERCISE
Write a note on:
1. Parties to hire purchase agr eements
2. Installment credits
1. What is hire purchase agreement? Which are the terminologies used in
hire purchase agreements?
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of hire purchase agreements.
3. Distinguish between hire purchase and lease financing .
4. What is installment credit? Explain few types of installment credit?
5. Write a note on sources of finance in India.


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53 6
HOUSING FINANCE
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objectives

6.1 Introduction & Meaning

6.2 Statutory Regulatory Framework of Housing Finance Companies in
India

6.3 Challenges confronted by Housing Sector Finance

6.4 Housing Industry in India: SWOC Analysis

6.5 National Housing Bank: Introduction

6.6 Disbursement of Funds under Refinance Schemes of NHB.

6.7 Summary Questions

6.0 OBJECTIVES

i) Learners will learn in conceptual and theoretical framework of housing
finance in India
ii) Learners will understand the role of National Housing Bank.
iii) Learners will be exposed to facts and data as adapted from RBI.
6.1 HOUSING FINANCE : INTRODUCTION &
MEANING
With improved penetration of housing finance during the last decade, the
Real Estate Industry in India has t urned out to be the second largest
growing sector with providing employment to millions. Increasing
demand due to nuclearization of families, High Disposable Income,
Incentives from government and increased verticals of housing finance
availability has led to the growth of the housing finance industry in its
length and breadth. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana –Urban (PMAY -U)
further gave an impetus to the this sector. The home loan market recorded
a CAGR of 18% during the fiscal period of 2014 -19 with low priced
housing segment contributing to 80% market share of housing finance
market. This rising trend is witnessed not only in top 50 districts of the
country but also smaller districts of the country with nuclearization of
families acting as major growth driver.

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54 Institutional Framework of Housing Finance in India
National Housing Bank is the apex institution that acts as refinancing
agency, the regulatory body in terms of housing finance and at the same
time acts as an ancillary body to state and public author ities aligned
towards housing and development project. The entire ecosystem is broadly
categorized into Commercial Banks, Housing Finance companies and co -
operative institutions that directly acts as financial agents to direct
consumers and project finance intermediaries. The entire housing finance
ecosystem can be glanced with the help of below tree diagram:
Institutional Framework of Housing Finance in India.

Source: Lalita Mutreja , CC BY -SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Common
6.2 STATUTORY REGULATORY FRAMEWORK OF
HOUSING FINANCE COMPANIES IN INDIA (AS
ADAPTED FROM RBI)
Principal business and housing finance :
1. “Housing finance company” shall mean a company incorporated under
the Companies Act, 2013 that fulfils the following conditions:
a. It is an NBFC1 whose financial assets, in the business of providing
finance for housing, constitute at least 60% of its total assets (netted off
by intangible assets). Housing finance for this purpose shall mean
providing finance as stated at clauses (a) to (k) of Para 2 below.
b. Out o f the total assets (netted off by intangible assets), not less than
50% should be by way of housing financing for individuals as stated at
clauses (a) to (e) of Para 2 below.
2. “Housing Finance” shall mean financing, for purchase/ construction/
reconstruc tion/ renovation/ repairs of residential dwelling units, which
includes:
a. Loans to individuals or group of individuals including co -operative
societies for construction/ purchase of new dwelling units. munotes.in

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55 b. Loans to individuals or group of individuals for purcha se of old
dwelling units.
c. Loans to individuals or group of individuals for purchasing old/ new
dwelling units by mortgaging existing dwelling units.
d. Loans to individuals for purchase of plots for construction of
residential dwelling units provided a declar ation is obtained from the
borrower that he intends to construct a house on the plot within a
period of three years from the date of availing of the loan.
e. Loans to individuals or group of individuals for renovation/
reconstruction of existing dwelling unit s.
f. Lending to public agencies including state housing boards for
construction of residential dwelling units.
g. Loans to corporates/ Government agencies for employee housing.
h. Loans for construction of educational, health, social, cultural or other
institution s/ centres, which are part of housing projects and which are
necessary for the development of settlements or townships (see note
below).
i. Loans for construction meant for improving the conditions in slum
areas, for which credit may be extended directly to t he slum -dwellers
on the guarantee of the Central Government, or indirectly to them
through the State Governments.
j. Loans given for slum improvement schemes to be implemented by
Slum Clearance Boards and other public agencies.
k. Lending to builders for constru ction of residential dwelling units.
All other loans including those given for furnishing dwelling units, loans
given against mortgage of property for any purpose other than buying/
construction of a new dwelling unit/s or renovation of the existing
dwelli ng unit/s as mentioned above, will be treated as non -housing loans
and will not be falling under the definition of “Housing Finance”.
Note: Integrated housing project comprising some commercial spaces
(e.g. shopping complex, school, etc.) can be treated as residential housing,
provided that the commercial area in the residential housing project does
not exceed 10 per cent of the total Floor Space Index (FSI) of the project.
3. The above criteria will be applicable from the date of this circular.
Registered HFCs which do not currently fulfil the criteria as specified
in Para 1, but wish to continue as HFCs, shall be provided with the
following timeline for transition:

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56 Timeline Minimum
percentage of
total assets
towards housing
finance Minimum
percentage of
total assets
towards housing
finance for
individuals
March 31, 2022 50% 40%
March 31, 2023 55% 45%
March 31, 2024 60% 50%

Such HFCs shall be required to submit to the Reserve Bank, a Board
approved plan within three months including a roadmap to fulfi l the
above -mentioned criteria and timeline for transition. HFCs unable to fulfil
the above criteria as per the timeline shall be treated as NBFC –
Investment and Credit Companies (NBFC -ICC) and they will be required
to approach the Reserve Bank for conver sion of their Certificate of
Registration from HFC to NBFC -ICC. Application for such conversion
should be submitted with all supporting documents meant for new
registration together with an auditor’s certificate on principal business
criteria and necessary Board resolution approving the conversion.
Net Owned Fund (NOF) Requirement :
4. In exercise of the powers conferred by clause (b) of sub -section (1) of
Section 29A of the National Housing Bank Act, 1987, and all powers
enabling it in that behalf, the Res erve Bank hereby specifies Rupees
twenty crore as the minimum net owned funds required for a company
to commence housing finance as its principal business or carry on the
business of housing finance as its principal business.
Provided that a housing financ e company holding a Certificate of
Registration (CoR) and having net owned fund of less than Rupees
twenty crore, may continue to carry on the business of housing finance,
if such company achieves net owned fund of Rupees fifteen crore by
March 31, 2022 an d Rupees twenty crore by March 31 2023.
5. It will be incumbent upon such HFCs whose NOF currently stands
below Rupees twenty crore, to submit a statutory auditor's certificate to
Reserve Bank within a period of one month evidencing compliance
with the pre scribed levels as at the end of the period indicated above.
HFCs failing to achieve the prescribed level within the stipulated
period shall not be eligible to hold the Certificate of Registration (CoR)
as HFCs and registration for such HFCs shall be liable to be cancelled.
Such companies, who wish to be treated as NBFC – Investment and
Credit Companies (NBFC -ICCs), will be required to approach RBI for
conversion of their CoR from HFC to NBFC -ICC. Application for such
conversion should be submitted with all supporting documents meant
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57 business criteria (PBC) and necessary Board resolution approving the
conversion.
Applicability of directions issued by Reserve Bank
6. The following master directions, as amended from time to time, shall
apply mutatis mutandis to all HFCs:
a. Master Direction – Monitoring of Frauds in NBFCs (Reserve Bank)
Directions, 2016 .
b. Master Direction – Information Technology Framework for the NBFC
Sector dated June 08, 2017 .
7. The following instructions, as further detailed in the Appendix shall
apply mutatis mutandis to all HFCs:
a. Definition of public deposits as contained in Master Direction – Non-
Banking Financial Companies Acceptance of Public D eposits (Reserve
Bank) Directions, 2016. Additionally, any amount received from NHB
or any public housing agency shall also be exempted from the
definition of public deposit.
b. Implementation of Indian Accounting Standards: HFCs shall
maintain a prudential f loor in respect of impairment allowances and
follow instructions on regulatory capital.
c. Loans against security of shares: HFCs lending against the collateral
of listed shares shall maintain a Loan to Value (LTV) ratio of 50% for
loans granted against the c ollateral of shares. Any shortfall in the
maintenance of the 50% LTV occurring on account of movement in
the share prices shall be made good within seven working days.
d. Loans against security of single product – gold jewellery: HFCs
shall maintain a Loan -to-Value (LTV) Ratio not exceeding 75 per cent
for loans granted against the collateral of gold jewellery, and shall put
in place a Board approved policy for lending against gold.
e. Levy of foreclosure charges: HFCs shall not impose foreclosure
charges/ pre -payment penalties on any floating rate term loan
sanctioned for purposes other than business to individual borrowers,
with or without co -obligant(s).
f. Guidelines on Securitization Transactions and reset of Credit
Enhancement: HFCs shall carry out securitizati on of standard assets
and transfer of assets through direct assignment of cash flows and the
underlying securities. In doing so, HFCs, among other things, shall
conform to the minimum holding period (MHP) and minimum
retention requirement (MRR) standards.
g. Managing Risks and Code of Conduct in Outsourcing of Financial
Services: It is imperative for HFCs outsourcing their activities that
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58 effective oversight, due diligence and management of risks a rising
from such outsourced activities.
h. Guidelines on Liquidity Risk Management Framework: All non -
deposit taking HFCs with asset size of 100 crore and above and all
deposit taking HFCs (irrespective of asset size) shall pursue liquidity
risk management, which inter alia should cover adherence to gap
limits, making use of liquidity risk monitoring tools and adoption of
stock approac h to liquidity risk. It will be the responsibility of the
Board of each HFC to ensure that the guidelines are adhered to. The
internal controls required to be put in place by HFCs as per these
guidelines shall be subject to supervisory review.
i. Guidelines o n Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR): HFCs shall
maintain a liquidity buffer in terms of LCR, which will promote
resilience of HFCs to potential liquidity disruptions by ensuring that
they have sufficient High Quality Liquid Asset (HQLA) to survive any
acute l iquidity stress scenario lasting for 30 days. Guidelines on LCR
will be applicable to HFCs as per the following timeline:
i) All non -deposit taking HFCs with asset size of 10,000 crore & above,
and all deposit taking HFCs irrespective of their asset size:
From December 01, 2021 December 01, 2022 December 01, 2023 December 01, 2024 December 01, 2025 Minimum LCR 50% 60% 70% 85% 100%

ii) All non -deposit taking HFCs with asset size of 5,000 crore & above,
but less than 10,000 crore with the timeline as:
From December 01, 2021 December 01, 2022 December 01, 2023 December 01, 2024 December 01, 2025 Minimum LCR 30% 50% 60% 85% 100%

8. Exposure of HFCs to group companies engaged in real estate
business : In case of companies in a group engaged in real estate
busin ess, HFCs may undertake exposure either to the group company
engaged in real estate business or lend to retail individual home buyers
in the projects of such group companies. In case HFC prefers to
undertake exposure in group companies, such exposure by wa y of
lending and investing, directly or indirectly, cannot be more than 15%
of owned fund for a single entity in the group and 25% of owned fund
for all such group entities. The HFC would in all such cases follow
arm’s length principles in letter and spiri t.
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59 6.3 CHALLENGES CONFRONTED BY HOUSING
SECTOR FINANCE IN INDIA
Every Rs one lakh home loan adds Rs 2.9 lakhs to the economy, such is
the importance of housing finance both at the demand and supply side.
However, in midst of COVID 19 the challenges of Hou sing Finance
Sector have been wide and deeper. The turbulence experienced in both the
real estate construction sector as well as consumer’s affordability have led
to declined in the housing sector finance. Following are few challenges
confronted by the Hou sing Sector Finance in India
1. Credit Growth: The credit growth is expected to slower down in the
coming period of 2 -3 years due to slip off of cashflows of the
consumers due to reduction in pays, job loss, adding safety cushion
etc. On other hand due to inc rease in steel prices and delays in existing
construction the real sector too has been patchy. This has led to delay
in loan disbursements and addition in credit growth has received a
severe blow.

2. Lower Profitability: With increased in non -performing ass ets and
restructuring plans, the over profitability margins have witnessed a
downfall.

3. Fiscal Liquidity crunch: With the collapse of DHFL, the fiscal
liquidity crunches the risk aversion has been high leading to
deceleration of housing sector credit.

4. Increased Costs: The increased costs of the HFC’s have further led to
decline in the loan borrowings further widening the income and
revenue gaps.

5. Decline in Asset Quality: The asset quality has witnessed a weak
credit appraisal and decline in credit back ing due to erratic macro -
economic parameters coupled with absence of stern bankruptcy laws.
The COVID wave has further impacted the asset quality.
6.4 HOUSING INDUSTRY IN INDIA: SWOC ANALYSIS
Strengths:
1. Huge Finance Market: The housing finance industry h olds total
outstanding loan amount of Rs 20.4 trillion (RBI Report 2020) out of
which housing finance companies occupy the dominant position.

2. Strong Institutional Framework: Indian housing finance ecosystem is
well carved serving right at grassroot level s by housing finance
companies, co -operative banks, NBFC’s and commercial banks who
serve the customers while at the other end, NHB provides refinance to
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60 3. Favorable Regulatory Framework: Recent reforms in tax wherein two
residen tial properties are now allowed by an individual as well refund
in stamp duty and GST for the purchase of the first residential property
have further boosted this sector.
Weakness :
1. Huge NPA: With present scenario wherein income levels have
shrinked, the existence of NPA’s have increased pressurizing the credit
growth of the lending institutes.

2. Stability in Interest Rates: Frequent fluctuations in repo rate and
reverse repo rate lead to changes in home loan interest rates.
Opportunities :
1. Nuclear Famil y Systems: With increasing nuclear family system being
practiced, there is an upsurge in the demand of home loans.

2. Increased in Disposable Income: Increased income of the individuals
and existence of more working members in the family have led to
increas ed capacity of families to buy home.

3. Increased Penetration: Increased penetration of housing finance with
availability of wide consortium of banks, NBFC’s, housing finance
companies that at the same time empower customers with improved
bargaining power.
Challenges :
1. High Inflation: The inflation rates have been ever rising impacting the
entire ecosystem of fiscal and public finances.

2. Uncertainty: Due to presence of COVID -19 the element of uncertainty
and fear amongst the individual has increased. Thi s has led to keep
increased in demand for liquidity and has also impacted loan paying
capacity of an individuals.
6.5 NATIONAL HOUSING BANK: INTRODUCTION
With a vision to promote in stability in housing finance sector, the
Government Of India enacted the National Housing Bank Act, 1987 which
led to the formation of National Housing Bank on July 8, 1988 as an apex
institute with entire paid up capital subscribed by the Reserve Bank of
India. It’s head office is located in New Delhi.
The Preamble of the Na tional Housing Bank Act, 198 7 describes the basic
functions of the NHB “… to operate as a principal agency to promote
housing finance institutions both at local and regional levels and to
provide financial and other support to such institutions and for
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61 Source : National Housing Bank Act, 1987
The broad objectives of the NHB are as below -
1. To act as facilitator and refinance to promote housing.
2. To provide a robust, healthy, cost -effective housing finance system in
the country.
3. To integrate and align the housing finance into the mainstream of
financial system of the country.
4. To make available housing finance at affordable rates.
5. To penetrate deeper across the regions and income groups for assuring
availa bility of housing finance services.
The major milestones achieved are stated as below –
1. In 1990 -91: NHB was recognized as Public Financial Institution
2. In 1992 -93: With an aim to reach out to the large population, it
launched the refinance schemes for S lum Development Projects.
3. In 1994 -95: Launched Unsecured Bonds and established prudential
norms with Housing Finance Companies.
4. In 2002 -03: Defined Liberalized Refinance Scheme for Housing
Loans.
5. In 2006 -07: Established the first housing index of India i.e NHB
Residex.
6. In 2007 -08 Established finance to Rural Housing Fund with NHB.
7. In 2009 -10: Formed Asia Pacific Union for Housing Finance
8. In 2012 NHB was awarded with Skoch Financial Inclusion Awards
for its project, “Energy Efficient New Residential Ho using in India.
9. In 2014 -15 : It was appointed as Nodal agency under Pradhan Mantri
Awaz Yojana
10. In 2017 -18: The National Housing Bank Act, 1987 was amended
under the Finance Act, 2018 wherein the share capital was transferred
from RBI to Central Governmen t.


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62 6.6 DISBURSEMENT OF FUNDS UNDER REFINANCE
SCHEMES OF NHB.
DISBURSEMENTS BY NATIONAL HOUSING BANK UNDER ITS REFINANCE SCHEMES ` Crore)
Year
(July -
June) Housing Finance
Companies Banks Others Total
Disburs
ements Outsta
nding Disburs
ements Outstan
ding Disburs
ements Outsta
nding Disburs
ements Outstan
ding
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2000 -01 762 3344 106 150 141 830 1008 4325
2001 -02 719 3750 85 211 219 984 1024 4946
2002 -03 1772 4629 798 935 140 1044 2710 6607
2003 -04 1851 4736 1284 2259 118 1056 3253 8052
2004 -05 2623 4928 5404 6720 35 819 8062 12467
2005 -06 1840 4888 3791 10428 2 952 5633 16268
2006 -07 1210 4915 4280 14011 10 348 5500 19274
2007 -08 1189 4750 7398 11758 0 268 8587 16776
2008 -09 7055 10324 3799 5972 0 166 10854 16461
2009 -10 3544 1114 6 4335 8153 229 505 8108 19804
2010 -11 3309 10891 8414 11037 312 653 12035 22581
2011 -12 5302 13288 8994 14799 93 477 14390 28564
2012 -13 7693 16402 9848 17268 0 328 17541 33998
2013 -14 9633 22086 8223 17137 0 215 17856 39438
2014 -15 7390 24300 14367 19555 90 176 21847 44031
2015 -16 10852 29735 10678 23172 60 157 21590 53064
2016 -17 16779 40277 5855 14335 50 193 22684 54804
2017 -18 11508 38116 13363 20416 50 193 24921 58725
2018 -19 21736 50145 3391 18786 50 163 25177 69094
2019 -20 27551 64653 3707 17951 0 149 31258 82753
2020 -21 26905 71389 7325 13135 0 149 34230 84673
Notes : 1. Data for 2020 -21 are provisional.
2. Banks include Private Sector, Public Sector, Foreign Banks and Regional Rural Banks (RRBs).
3. Others include Urban Co -operati ve Banks (UCBs), Agriculture and Rural Development Banks (ARDBs)
and Apex Co -operative Housing Finance Societies (ACHFs).
4. NHB follows July -June financial year.
Source: National Housing Bank.





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63 6.7 SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1. Write a SWOC analysis of Housin g Finance sector in India
2. Write in brief about National Housing Bank of India
3. Critically evaluate the housing finance sector in India in light with its
growth prospects and challenges.
4. Discuss in brief the regulatory and statutory norms of Housing Finance
in India as laid down by RBI.



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64 7
STOCK BROKING
Unit Structure :
7.0 Learning Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Stock Broker
7.2.1 Application for registration of stock broker.
7.2.2 Furnishing information, clarification, etc.
7.2.3 Consideration of application.
7.2.4 Criteria for fi t and proper person.
7.2.5 Procedure for registration.
7.2.6 Conditions of registration.
7.2.7 Stock Brokers to abide by Code of Conduct.
7.2.8 Procedure where registration is not granted.
7.2.9 Effect of refusal of certificate of registration.
7.2.10 Payment of fees and the consequences of failure to pay
fees.
7.3 Sub-broker
7.3.1 Registration as sub -broker.
7.3.2 Application for registration of sub -broker.
7.3.3 Procedure for registration.
7.3.4 Conditions of registration.
7.3.5 Procedure where registration is not granted.
7.3.6 Effect of refusal.
7.3.7 General obligations and inspection.
7.3.8 Director not to act as sub -broker.
7.4 Foreign Broker
7.5 Trading and clearing members
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65 7.5.1 Application for registration of trading member or clearing
member.
7.5.2 Furnishing of information, clarification etc.
7.5.3 Consideration of application.
7.5.4 Procedure for registration.
7.5.5 Procedure where registration is not granted.
7.5.6 Effect of refusal of certificate of registrati on.
7.5.7 Payment of fees and consequences of failure to pay fees.
7.5.8 Trading member / clearing member [or self -clearing member]
to abide by the Code of Conduct etc.
7.6 Stock Trading (Cash and Normal)
7.6.1 Advantages of Cash Trading
7.6.2 Disadvantages of Cash Trading
7.7 Stock Trading (Derivatives)
7.7.1 Types of Derivatives
7.7.2 Participants of Derivatives Market
7.7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Derivatives
7.8 General obligations and responsibilities applicable to Broker/Sub -
Broker/ Clearing member/Self -clearing member
7.8.1 General obligations and responsibilities (chapter IV)
7.8.2 Procedure for inspection (Chapter V)
7.8.3 Procedure for action in case of default (chapter VI)
7.9 Summary
7.10 Exercise
7.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After r eading this learner will be able to:
 Understand the role of the stock broker and sub -broker.
 Discuss duties and responsibilities of the broker and sub -broker.
 Explain the code of conduct of the broker and sub -broker.

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66 7.1 INTRODUCTION
A stock market is a n organised market in which securities are traded. It is
made up of investors, brokers or stock exchange members, stock
exchanges, companies, and regulatory authorities. Securities traded on the
stock exchange include a variety of long -term financial instr uments issued
by corporations to meet their financial obligations. A recognised stock
exchange is defined as the one, which is recognised by the Government.
Every stock exchange provides a platform between the general public and
corporate entities seeking to raise long -term resources. As a result, it is
accountable for:
Maintaining fairness in stock exchange trading,
Maintaining discipline in the members' activities
Maintain operational transparency and efficiency.
Stock exchange transactions can be made on ly through the member. So let
us understand about the broker and sub broker in detail in this unit.
7.2 STOCK BROKER
Stock broker is defined as “stock broker” means a member of a stock
exchange. A stockbroker is a regulated financial market representative
who facilitates the buying and selling of securities on behalf of financial
institutions, investor clients, and firms. A stockbroker may also be referred
to as a registered representative or a broker. Stock trading, as well as the
purchase and sale of stoc ks on national stock exchanges, is typically
handled by a stockbroker. Stockbrokers deal with both institutional and
retail customers. A stockbroker's primary responsibility is to obtain and
execute buy and sell orders. To invest in securities, many market
participants rely on stockbrokers' knowledge and expertise about market
dynamics. A stockbroker can work independently or as part of a brokerage
firm.
7.2.1 APPLICATION FO R REGISTRATION OF STOCK
BROKERS
 A stock broker must submit an application for the is suance of a
certificate in 'Form A' to the stock exchange or exchanges to which he
is admitted as a member.

 The stock exchange shall forward the application form to the Board as
soon as possible but no later than thirty days after receipt.

 Any application made by a stock broker prior to these regulations
came into force in the ‘Form A’ shall be treated as an application
made in pursuance of sub -regulation (1) and dealt with accordingly
provided that the requirement of the payment of fees shall be the same
as is referred to in sub -regulation (1) of regulation 10.
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67 7.2.2 FURNISHIN G OF INFORMATION, CLARIFICATION
The Board may require the applicant to provide additional information or
clarifications regarding securities transactions and related matters in orde r
to consider the application for a certificate. If required, the applicant or its
principal officer must appear before the Board for personal representation.
7.2.3 CONSIDERATION OF APPLICATION
For the purpose of granting a certificate, the Board shall con sider all
matters relating to buying, selling, or dealing in securities, particularly
whether the stock broker —
(a) is eligible to be admitted as a member of a stock exchange;
(b) has the necessary infrastructure, such as adequate office space,
equipment, and manpower, to effectively discharge his activities; and
(c) has any prior experience in the business of buying, selling, or dealing
in securities.
(d) is subjected to disciplinary proceedings under the rules, regulations,
and byelaws of a stock excha nge involving himself or any of his
partners, directors, or employees in connection with his business as a
stockbroker;
(e) The Board may consider the criteria specified in Schedule II of the
Securities and Exchange Board of India (Intermediaries) Regulat ions,
2008 when determining whether an applicant or a stock broker, sub -
broker, trading member, or clearing member is a fit and proper
person.
7.2.4 CRITERIA FOR FIT AND PROPER PERSON
(1) The Board may consider any consideration it deems appropriate in
determining whether an applicant or intermediary seeking registration
under one or more of the relevant regulations is a "fit and proper
person," including but not limited to the following criteria –
(a) Financial integrity;
(b) Absence of convictions or ci vil liabilities;
(c) Competence;
(d) Good reputation and character;
(e) Efficiency and honesty; and
(f) Absence of any disqualification to act as an intermediary as
stipulated in these regulations.
(2) If a person receives any of the following disquali fications, he will not
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68 renewing a certificate to act as an intermediary or continuing to act as
an intermediary under any one or more of the relevant regulations.
(a) the applicant o r the intermediary, as the case may be, or its whole -
time director or managing partner, has been convicted by a Court of
any crime involving moral turpitude, economic crime, securities laws,
or fraud;
(b) the applicant or the intermediary has been order ed for winding up;
(c) the applicant or the intermediary, as the case may be, or its whole -
time director or managing partner, has been convicted by a Court of
any crime involving moral turpitude, economic crime, securities laws,
or fraud;
(d) the Boar d or any other regulatory authority has issued an order, other
than a suspension of certificate of registration as an intermediary,
restraining, prohibiting, or debarring the applicant or the intermediary,
or its whole -time director or managing partner, fr om dealing in
securities in the capital market or from accessing the capital market,
and the period specified in the order has not expired after three years.
(e) the Board has issued an order cancelling the applicant's or
intermediary's certificate of regi stration on the grounds of insider
trading, fraudulent and unfair trade practises, or market manipulation,
and three years have not passed since the order was issued;
(f) the Board or any other regulatory authority has issued an order
withdrawing or refus ing to grant any licence / approval to the
applicant or the intermediary, or its full -time director or managing
partner, that has a bearing on the capital market, and the order has not
expired after three years;
Provided that the Board may for reaso ns to be recorded in writing,
allow the applicant or the intermediary, to seek registration before the
lapse of three years as specified in clauses (d), (e) and (f).
(g) the applicant or intermediary is financially unsound;
(h) any other reason, to be recorded in wri ting by the Board, that renders
such applicant or intermediary, or its full -time director or managing
partner, unfit to operate in the capital market in the Board's opinion.
7.2.5 PROCEDURE FOR REGISTRATION
When the Board is satisfied that t he stockbroker is eligible, it shall issue a
certificate in 'Form D' to the stockbroker and notify the stock exchange or
exchanges, provided the stock broker holds a certificate of registration for
membership in a recognised stock exchange with nationwide trading
terminals is eligible for trading on the SME platform. SME platform
means a trading platform of a recognised stock exchange having
nationwide trading terminals and permitted by the Board to list the
securities issued.

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69 7.2.6 CONDI TIONS FOR GRANT O F REGISTRATION
(a) the stock broker is a member of any stock exchange;
(b) he must follow the stock exchange's r ules, regulations, and bye -law
that apply to him;
(c) if the stock broker wishes to change his status or constitution, he
must obtain prior approval from the Board before continuing to act as
such after the change;
(d) he must pay fees charged by the Board in the manner specified in
these regulations; and
(e) Within one month of receiving the complaint, he shall take adequate
steps to addre ss the investors' grievances and keep the Board
informed of the number, nature, and other details of the complaints
received from such investors.
7.2.7 STOCK BROK ERS TO ABIDE BY CODE OF CONDUCT
The stock broker holding a certificate shall at all times abid e by the Code
of Conduct as specified in Schedule II
A. General:
(1) Integrity: A stockbroker must uphold high standards of integrity,
promptitude, and fairness in all aspects of his business.
(2) Exercise of due skill and care: A stockbroker must conduct all of his
business with due skill, care, and diligence.
(3) Manipulation: A stockbroker shall not engage in manipulative,
fraudulent, or deceptive transactions or schemes, nor shall he spread
rumours with the intent of distorting market equilibrium or ga ining
personal gain.
(4) Malpractice: A stockbroker shall not, either alone or in concert with
others, create false markets or engage in any act detrimental to the
interests of investors or interfere with the fair and smooth operation of
the market. A sto ckbroker shall not engage in excessive speculative
trading in the market above reasonable levels that are not
commensurate with his financial soundness.
(5) Compliance with statutory requirements: A stockbroker must
follow all provisions of the Act as well as any rules or regulations
issued by the Government, the Board, or the Stock Exchange from
time to time that apply to him.
B. Obligation to the Investor
(1) Order Execution: In his dealings with clients and the general
investing public, a stockbroker shall faithfully execute orders for
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70 shall not refuse to deal with a Small Investor solely on the basis of the
volume of business involved. A stockbroker must promptly notify his
client of the execution or non -execution of an order, make prompt
payment for securities sold, and arrange for prompt delivery of
securities purchased by clients.
(2) Contract Note: A stockbroker shall issue a contract note to his client
[or client of the sub -broker, as the case may be] for all transactions in
the form specified by the stock exchange without delay.
(3) Breach of Trust: A stockbroker shall not disclose or discuss with any
other person, or make improper use of, the details of the client's
personal i nvestments and other confidential information learned in the
course of his business relationship.
(4) Business and Commission:
(a) A stockbroker may not promote the sale or purchase of securities
solely to generate brokerage or commission.
(b) A stockbr oker shall not provide false or misleading quotations to
clients or provide any other false or misleading advice or information
with the intent of inducing him to do business in particular securities
and thereby earning brokerage or commission.
(5) Dealing s with Defaulting Clients: A stockbroker may not deal or
transact business with a client who has failed to fulfil his obligations
in relation to securities with another stockbroker, either directly or
indirectly.
(6) Fairness to Clients: When dealing with a client, a stockbroker must
disclose whether he is acting as a principal or as an agent while also
ensuring that there is no conflict of interest between him and the
client. In the event of a conflict of interest, he shall notify the client
and shall not seek a direct or indirect personal advantage from the
situation, nor shall he regard the client's interests as inferior to his
own.
(7) Investment Advice: A stockbroker shall not make an investment
recommendation to any client who may be expected to rely on it to
acquire, dispose of, or retain securities unless he has reasonable
grounds to believe that the recommendation is suitable for such a
client.
Investment advice in publicly accessible media —
(a) A stock broker or any of his employees shall not re nder, directly or
indirectly, any investment advice about any security in the publicly
accessible media, whether real -time or non -real-time, unless he has
disclosed his interest, including the interest of his dependent family
members, and the employer's lo ng or short position in the said
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71 (b) If an employee of the stock broker is providing such advice, he must
also disclose the interests of his dependent family members and the
employer, as well as their long or short p ositions in the security.
C. Stockbrokers in Relation to Other Stockbrokers
(1) Conduct of dealings: When comparing unmatched transactions, a
stockbroker must work with the other contracting party. A
stockbroker must not knowingly and wilfully deliver doc uments that
are marked as bad delivery, and must work with the other contracting
party to replace documents that are marked as bad delivery as soon as
possible.
(2) Protection of Clients Interests: A stockbroker must work with other
stockbrokers to protect his clients' rights to dividends, bonus shares,
right shares, and any other right related to such securities.
(3) Stock -Broker Transactions: A stock -broker must carry out his
transactions with other stock -brokers and meet his obligations in
completing the settlement of those transactions.
(4) Publicity and Advertising: A stockbroker may not advertise his
business publicly unless the stock exchange permits it.
(5) Client Inducement: A stockbroker may not use unfair means to attract
clients from other stockb rokers.
(6) False or Misleading Returns: A stockbroker must not neglect, fail,
or refuse to submit required returns, and must not make any false or
misleading statements on any returns required to be submitted to the
Board and the stock exchange.
7.2.8 PROCEDURE WH ERE REGISTRATION IS NOT GRANTED
(1) If an application for a certificate does not meet the requirements
specified, the Board may reject the application after providing a
reasonable opportunity to be heard.
(2) The Board shall communicate the refus al to grant the registration
certificate to the concerned stock exchange and to the applicant within
thirty days of such refusal, stating the reasons for the rejection.
(3) An applicant who is dissatisfied with the Board's decision may apply
to the Board f or reconsideration of its decision within thirty days of
receiving such notification.
(4) The Board shall reconsider an application and communicate its
decision in writing to the applicant and the relevant stock exchange as
soon as possible.
7.2.9 EFFECT O F REFUSAL OF CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION
A stock -broker whose application for certificate grant has been denied by
the Board shall not buy, sell, or deal in securities as a stock -broker on or
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72 7.2.10 PAYMENT O F FEES AND THE CONS EQUENCES OF
FAILURE TO PAY FEES
(1) Every applicant eligible for a certificate must pay the fees in the
manner specified. Provided, however, that if sufficient cause is
shown, the Board may allow the stockbroker to pay such fees at any
time before the expiration of six months from the date such fees
become due.
(2) If a stockbroker fails to pay the fees outlined in Regulation 10, the
Board may suspend the registration certificate, at which point the
stockbroker ceases to buy, sell, or dea l in securities as a stockbroker.
Test your Understanding
1. State the concept of “fit and proper person” for appointment as Broker
2. State whether True or False: A broker has to be an individual.
7.3 SUB -BROKER
A sub -broker is defined as “sub -broker” means any person not being a
member of stock exchange who acts on behalf of a stock broker as an
agent or otherwise for assisting the investors in buying, selling or dealing
in securities through such stock brokers. A sub -broker is an agent who
works for a stock ex change trading member. A sub -broker must be
registered with both the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
and a local stock exchange. Sub -brokers assist their clients in purchasing
and selling securities on the stock exchange. They provide them wi th
information on various securities. They also forward the trading orders of
their clients to the trading member or brokerage firm with which they are
affiliated. They receive a percentage of the brokerage commission in
exchange for the service provided.
7.3.1 REGISTRATION AS SUB -BROKER
(1) No sub -broker shall act as such unless he possesses a certificate issued
by the Board in accordance with these regulations.
(2) Under sub -regulation (1), no new certificate is required if a sub -broker
simply changes h is affiliation from one stock broker to another stock
broker who is a member of the same stock exchange.
(3) Subject to the provisions of regulation 12A, no new certificate under
sub-regulation (1) is required where a registered sub -broker is
affiliated w ith a stock broker who is eligible to trade on the SME
platform.
SME platform means a trading platform of a recognised stock exchange
having nationwide trading terminals and permitted by the Board to list the
securities.
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73 7.3.2 APPLICATION FOR REGISTRATION OF SUB -BROKER
(1) An application by a sub -broker's for grant of the certificate must be
submitted in 'Form B.'
(2) A recommendation letter in 'Form C' from a stockbroker of a
recognised stock exchange with whom he is to be affiliated, as well
as two references, one from his banker, must be submitted with the
application for registration under sub -regulation (1) above.
(3) The application form must be submitted to the stock exchange of the
stockbroker with whom he will be affiliated.
(4) Upon r eceipt of an application under sub -regulation (3), the stock
exchange shall verify the information contained therein and certify
that the applicant meets the eligibility criteria set forth in sub -
regulation (3).
(5) The eligibility criteria for registra tion as a sub -broker shall be as
follows, namely:
(i) In the case of an individual;
(a) the applicant is at least 21 years old;
(b) the applicant has not been convicted of any offence involving fraud
or dishonesty;
(c) the applicant has at l east passed the 12th standard equivalent
examination from an institution recognised by the Government; and
(d) the applicant is a fit and proper person.
(ii) in the case of a partnership firm or a body corporate, the partners or
directors, as the c ase may be, shall comply with the requirements
contained in clauses (a) to (c) of sub -regulation (i);
(iii) the applicant has the necessary infrastructure, such as adequate
office space, equipment, and manpower, to carry out his activities
effectively; a nd
(iv) the applicant is a person recognised by the stock exchange as a sub -
broker affiliated to a member broker of the stock exchange.
(6) Within 30 days of receipt of the application, the stock exchange shall
forward to the Board the application in Form 'B' of such applicant,
along with the recommendation letter in Form 'C' issued by the stock
broker with whom he is affiliated and the recognition letter in Form
'CA' issued by the stock exchange.
7.3.3 PROCEDURE FOR REGISTRATION
(1) If the Board determines that the sub -broker is eligible, it shall issue a
certificate in 'Form E' to the sub -broker and notify the stock
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74 (2) Subject to the terms and conditions, the Board may issue a certificate
of registration to the applicant laid down in sub -regulation (1) of
regulation 12A.
7.3.4 CONDITIONS OF REGISTRATION: [UNDER REGULATION
12A (1)]
Any registration granted by the Board under regulation 12 shall be subject
to the following conditions, namely
(a) he shall abide by the stock exchange's applicable rules, regulations,
and bye -laws;
(b) where the sub -broker proposes to change his status or constitution,
he shall obtain prior approval of the Board for continuing to act as
such after the change; (c) he shall pay fees charged by the Board in
the manner provided in these regulations; and
(d) he shall take adequate steps for the redressal of the investors'
grievances within one month of the date of receipt of the complaint
and keep the Board informed about the number, nature, and other
particulars of the complaints received from such investors; and
(e) he is authorised in writing by a stock -broker who is a member of a
stock exchange to affiliate himself in buying, selling, or dealing in
securities.
(2) Noth ing in clause (b) of sub -regulation (1) affects the obligation
to obtain a new registration under section 12 of the Act where
applicable.
7.3.5 PROCEDURE WHERE REGISTRATION IS NOT GRANTED
(1) If an application for a certificate granted under regulation 11A does
not meet the requirements specified in regulation 11A, the Board
may reject the application after providing a reasonable opportunity
to be heard.
(2) The Board shall communicate the refusal to grant the certificate to
the concerned stock exch ange and to the applicant in writing within
thirty days of such refusal, stating the reasons for the rejection.
(3) An applicant who is dissatisfied with the Board's decision under sub -
regulation (2) may apply to the Board for reconsideration of its
decision within thirty days of receiving such intimation.
(4) The Board shall reconsider an application made under sub -regulation
(3) and communicate its decision in writing to the applicant and the
relevant stock exchange as soon as possible.

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75 7.3.6 EFFECT OF REFUSAL
A person whose application for the grant of a certificate has been refused
by the Board shall cease to carry on any activity as a sub -broker on and
from the date of the communication of refusal under regulation 13.
7.3.7 GENERAL OBLIGATIONS AND INSPECTION
(1) The sub -broker shall
(a) pay the fees specified in Schedule III;
(b) abide by the Code of Conduct specified in Schedule II;
(c) enter into an agreement with the stock -broker defining the scope of his
authority and responsibilities;
(d) comp ly with the stock exchange's rules, regulations, and bye -laws; and
(e) not be affiliated with more than one stock broker of one stock
exchange.
(2) Except for the books and documents referred to in clauses (h), (i),
(j), (l), and (m) of sub -regulation ( 1) of regulation 17, the sub -broker
shall keep and maintain the books and documents specified in
regulation 17.
7.3.8 DIRECTOR NOT TO ACT AS SUB -BROKER
No director of a stock broker shall act as a sub -broker to the same
stockbroker
Test your understanding:
1. State the procedure for registration of a Sub -Broker.
2. State whether true or false: Director of a stock broker shall act as a sub -
broker to the same stock broker.
7.4 FOREIGN BROKER
Stocks of companies within a geographical boundary of a country is
expecte d to be known to all residents of that country. Foreign stocks, on
the other hand, are the securities of companies based in countries other
than the domestic country. Giant companies that are not based in India are
a profitable investment option, just as b lue-chip companies in India are.
Choose a broker who is based in India but has connections with foreign
brokers. All reputable and high -performing Indian stock brokers have
direct links and ties with their respective foreign brokers. An overseas
trading ac count in such a domain can be easily opened and operated,
allowing you to invest in foreign stocks.Some of the most active brokers
also have offices in India, making it easy for investors to visit them and
get answers to their questions. Some Indian mutual funds and exchange -
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76 As a result, investors can invest in such funds, with their money going
directly into foreign equities.
Investing Options:
 Through international funds, you can i nvest across borders.

 Regional investment is also facilitated by Regional Funds, which allow
investors to invest in regions such as Europe, Asia, and the Middle
East.

 Sector investment is also facilitated, as one can invest in sectors such as
gold, energy, and so on across a wide range of countries.

 Country funds facilitate country -wide investment.

 ADRs and GDRs

7.5 TRADING AND CLEARING MEMBERS
Trading Members: are members of SEBI -registered stock exchanges who
are authorised to trade on behalf of their cl ients or on their own account
(proprietary trades). According to SEBI regulations, each trading member
is assigned a unique TM -ID.
Trading cum Clearing Members (TCM): is a Clearing Member (CM) of
the exchange who is also a Trading Member (TM). The majority of large
brokers are TCMs. TCMs of this type can clear and settle their own
proprietary trades, client trades, and trades of other TMs and even
Custodial Participants.
7.5.1 APPLICATION FOR REGISTRATION OF TRADING
MEMBER OR CLEARING MEMBER
A trading membe r of a derivatives exchange or derivatives segment of a
stock exchange may apply for a certificate of registration in Form AA of
Schedule I, through the concerned derivatives exchange or derivatives
segment of a stock exchange of which he is a member.
A clearing member 34[or self -clearing member] of a clearing corporation
or clearing house of a derivatives exchange or derivatives segment of a
stock exchange shall apply for a certificate of registration in Form AA of
Schedule I, through the concerned clearin g corporation or clearing house
of which he is a member.
Provided that a trading member who also seeks to act as a clearing
member 35[orself -clearing member] shall make separate applications for
each activity in Form AAof Schedule I.
The derivatives exchan ge, segment, clearing house, or corporation, as
applicable, shall forward the application to the Board as soon as possible
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77 7.5.2 FURNISHING OF INFORMATION, CLARIFICATION, ETC.
(1) To consider the ap plication for a certificate, the Board may require
the applicant or the concerned stock exchange, segment, clearing
house, or corporation to provide any additional information or
clarifications regarding derivative trading and settlement and related
matter s.
(2) If required, the applicant or its principal officer must appear before
the Board for personal representation.
7.5.2 CONSIDERATION OF APPLICATION
(1) The Board shall grant a certificate relating to dealing and settlement
in derivatives, specific ally whether the applicant —
(a) is eligible to be admitted as a trading member of a derivatives
exchange and/or a clearing member of a derivatives exchange or
derivatives segment of a stock -exchange or clearing corporation or
house; and
(b) has the ne cessary infrastructure, such as adequate office space,
equipment, and man -power, to effectively carry out its operations.
(c) is subjected to disciplinary proceedings under the rules, regulations,
and byelaws of any stock exchange involving himself or any of his
partners, directors, or employees in connection with his business as a
stock broker, member of a derivatives exchange or segment, or
member of a clearing house or corporation;
(d) Is subject to any financial liability owed to the Board under t hese
regulations.
(2) In addition to meeting the requirements of sub -regulation (1), an
applicant who wishes to act as a trading member must have a net
worth as specified by the derivatives exchange or segment from time
to time, and the trading member's approved user and sales personnel
must have passed a certification programme approved by the Board.
(3) In addition to meeting the requirements of sub -regulation (1), an
applicant who wishes to act as a clearing member must have a
minimum net worth of Rs . 300 lacs and deposit at least Rs. 50 lacs
or more with the clearing corporation or clearing house of the
derivatives exchange or derivatives segment in the form specified
from time to time.
(4) In addition to meeting the requirements of sub -regulation (1), an
applicant who wishes to act as a self -clearing member must have a
minimum net worth of Rs. 100 lacs and deposit a sum of Rs. 50 lacs
or more with the clearing corporation or clearing house of the
derivatives exchange or derivatives segment in the f orm specified
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78 the expression‘net worth’ shall mean paid up capital and free
reserves and other securitiesapproved by the Board from time to
time (but does not include fixed assets, pledgedsecurities, value of
member’s card, non -allowabl e securities (unlisted securities),
baddeliveries, doubtful debts and advances (debts or advances
overdue for more thanthree months or debts or advances given to the
associate persons of the member),prepaid expenses, losses,
intangible assets and 30% value of marketable securities
7.5.4 PROCEDURE FOR REGISTRATION
When the Board is satisfied that the applicant is eligible, it shall issue a
certificate in Form DA of Schedule I to the applicant and notify the
derivatives segment of the stock exchange, derivati ves exchange, clearing
corporation, or clearing house, as applicable.
7.5.5 PROCEDURE WHERE REGISTRATION IS NOT GRANTED
(1) If an application for the grant of a certificate under regulation 16A
does not meet the requirements specified in regulation 16C of the
Regulations, the Board may reject the applicant's application after
giving the applicant a reasonable opportunity to be heard.
(2) The Board shall communicate the refusal to grant the certificate of
registration within 30 days of such refusal to the concerned segment
of the stock exchange, clearing house, or corporation, as well as to
the applicant, stating the reasons for the rejection.
(3) If an applicant is dissatisfied with the Board's decision under sub -
regulation (2), he or she may apply to the Board within thirty days of
receiving such information for a review.
(4) The Board shall reconsider an application made under sub -regulation
(3) and communicate its decision in writing to the applicant and the
relevant segment of the stock exchan ge, clearing house, or
corporation as soon as possible.
7.5.6 EFFECT OF REFUSAL OF CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION
An applicant whose application for the grant of a certificate of registration
has been denied by the Board shall not deal in or settle derivative s
contracts as a member of a derivatives exchange, derivatives segment,
clearing corporation, or clearing house on or after the date of receipt of the
communication under sub -regulation (2) or sub -regulation (4) of
regulation 16E.
7.5.7 PAYMENT OF FEES AND CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE
TO PAY FEES
(1) Every applicant who is eligible for a certificate as a trading or
clearing member [or self -clearing member] must pay the fee and in
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79 (2) If a trading or clearing member [or self-clearing member] fails to pay
the fees specified in sub -regulation (1), the Board may suspend or
cancel the registration certificate after giving the trading and
clearing member [or self -clearing member] an opportunity to be
heard, and the trading and clearing member [or self -clearing
member] shall cease to deal in or settle the derivatives contract as a
member of the derivatives segment of the exchange or derivatives
exchange or clearing corporation or clearing house.
7.5.8 TRADING MEMBER / CLEARING M EMBER [OR SELF -
CLEARING MEMBER] TO ABIDE BY THE CODE OF CONDUCT
ETC
(1) The code of conduct specified for stock brokers in Schedule II applies
mutatis mutandis to trading members and clearing members, and
such members must abide by it at all times.
(2) Trading and clearing members must follow the code of conduct
outlined in the rules, bye -laws, and regulations of the derivatives
exchange or derivatives segment of the exchange.
(3) Before executing an order on behalf of a prospective client, trading
members must obtain information about that client in the 'know your
client' format specified by the Board.
(4) The trading member must provide prospective clients with a 'risk
disclosure document' in the form specified, disclosing the risk
inherent in trad ing in derivatives.
(5) The trading or clearing member must deposit margin or any other
deposit and adhere to the position or exposure limits set by the
Board or the relevant exchange, segment, clearing corporation, or
clearing house from time to time.
(6) The provisions of sub -regulations (1) to (5) apply to a self -clearing
member in the same way.
(Mutatis mutandisis used when comparing two or more things to say that
although changes will be necessary in order to take account of different
situations, t he basic point remains the same)
Test your Understanding:
1. Who is foreign broker?
2. State whether true or false: A person who is trading member can
also act a s clearing member
3. State the steps to be taken if the application for registration as
Trading mem ber is rejected.
7.6 STOCK TRADING (CASH AND NORMAL)
Cash trading is simply the purchase and sale of securities with cash on
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80 trading accounts as the default account type. Since no margi n is required,
these accounts are easier to open and maintain than margin accounts.
Long -term investors may prefer these accounts because they do not
typically buy securities on margin or require quick trading settlements.
The settlement date is the day wh en the transaction is considered to be
consummated and the buyer is required to complete full payment. Stock
trades in cash accounts used to take up to three business days to settle, but
that was reduced to two days in 2017. T+2 refers to the trade date pl us two
business days in the market.
7.6.1 Advantages of Cash Trading
1. Unlike margin and derivative trading, there is no time limit for buying
and selling stocks in cash trading.
2. In the cash trading segment, one can hold the stocks for as long as one
wants until he or she achieves the desired profit.
3. Cash trading has a higher chance of profit than other methods of
trading in the stock market.
4. In cash trading, one must pay the full price of the stocks that one
wishes to purchase; while this may appear to be a limitation, it will
undoubtedly prevent an investor from exceeding the limit.
5. Because one cannot invest mor e than the fund allows, one can
effectively control the loss, even if prices fall.
7.6.2 Disadvantages of Cash Trading
1. The most significant disadvantage of cash trading is the exorbitant
brokerage and taxation that you must pay for delivery trading.
2. Typically, the brokerage for cash trading is ten times that of margin
trading. Of course, you can reduce this brokerage ra te by using online
stock trading portals, where the brokerage rate is significantly lower
than that of traditional brokerage houses, but it is still higher than the
margin trading brokerage.
7.7 STOCK TRADING (DERIVATIVES)
A Derivative is a financial inst rument whose value is derived from the
value of anunderlying asset. The underlying asset can be equity shares or
index, precious metals,commodities, currencies, interest rates etc. A
derivative instrument does not have anyindependent value. Its value is
always dependent on the underlying assets.
7.7.1 Types of Derivatives
The most common types of derivatives are:
(a) Forwards: A forward is a contract between two parties to buy or sell
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81 date of contract. Both contracting parties are committed and obligated
to honour the transaction regardless of the underlying asset's price at
the time of delivery. Contract terms and conditions are customised
because forwards are negotiated between two parti es. Forwards
contracts are negotiated bilaterally between two parties in OTC (Over
the Counter) markets and are not traded on the Stock Exchange.
(b) Futures: A futures contract is a legally binding agreement to buy or
sell an asset on a publicly traded ex change. The contract specifies when
the seller must deliver the asset and how much it will cost. A futures
contract's underlying asset is typically a commodity, stock, bond, or
currency. In terms of fundamental economics, futures markets are
identical to f orward markets. Contracts, on the other hand, are
standardised, and trading is centralised (on a stock exchange). There
isn't a counterparty. Increasing the time to expiration in futures
markets, unlike forward markets, does not increase counter party risk .
Futures markets are much more liquid than forward markets.
(c) Options: An option is a contract that grants the right, but not the
obligation, to buy or sell the underlying at a specified price and on or
before a specified date. While the buyer of an opt ion pays the premium
and acquires the right to cancel the contract at any time, the
writer/seller of an option receives the premium along with the
obligation to sell/purchase the underlying asset if the buyer exercises
his right.
Types of Options:
(i) Call Options: A call option grants the holder the right to purchase a
predetermined amount of the underlying asset at the strike price on a
predetermined date.
(ii) Put Options: A put option, on the other hand, grants the holder the
right to purchase a predete rmined amount of the underlying asset at the
strike price on a predetermined date.
(d) Swaps: A swap is a two -party derivative contract that involves the
exchange of pre -agreed -upon cash flows from two financial
instruments. The notional principal amount i s commonly used to
calculate cash flows (a predetermined nominal value). Each cash flow
stream is referred to as a "leg."
Types of Swaps:
(i) Interest rate swap: Two parties agree to exchange one stream of
future interest payments for another based on a f ixed notional
principal amount. Interest rate swaps, in general, involve the exchange
of a fixed interest rate for a floating interest rate.
(ii) Currency swap: Parties swap principal and interest payments
denominated in different currencies. Swap contract s are frequently
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82 (iii) Credit default swap: It protects against the default of a debt
instrument. The premium payments are transferred to the seller by the
buyer of a swa p. If the asset fails, the seller will reimburse the buyer
for the asset's face value, and the asset will be transferred from the
buyer to the seller.
(iv) Commodity swap: These derivatives are designed to exchange
floating cash flows based on a commodity' s spot price for fixed cash
flows based on a commodity's pre -agreed price. Contrary to popular
belief, commodity swaps do not involve the exchange of actual
commodities.
7.7.2 Participants of Derivatives Market:
Participant in the derivative market can be divide them into the following
categories based on their trading motives:
(i) Hedgers: Hedgers are stock market traders who are risk -averse. They
intend to use derivative markets to protect their investment portfolio
from market risk and price fluctuation s. They accomplish this by
taking an opposing position in the derivatives market. In this way,
they transfer the risk of loss to those who are willing to accept it.
They must pay a premium to the risk -taker in exchange for the
available hedging.
(ii) Specu lators: They are risk -seekers in the derivative market . They
want to take risks in order to profit. In comparison to the hedgers,
they have a completely opposing viewpoint. This difference of
opinion allows them to profit handsomely if their bets are co rrect. The
speculator retains the premium and profits.
(iii) Margin traders: A margin is the minimum amount you must deposit
with your broker in order to participate in the derivative market. It is
used to reflect your daily losses and gains based on marke t
movements. It allows you to gain leverage in derivative trades while
maintaining a large outstanding position. In the derivative market,
however, you can own a three times larger position, i.e. if you have
Rs. 2 lakhs, you can enter into contracts worth Rs 6 lakh with the
same amount. In the derivative market, even minor price changes
result in larger gains/losses than in the stock market.
(iv) Arbitrageurs: These are people who profit from low -risk market
imperfections. They buy low -priced securities in one market while
selling them at a higher price in another. Only when the same security
is quoted at different prices in different markets can this occur.
7.7.3 Advantages a nd Disadvantages of Derivatives
Advantages
 Risk diversification: As the value of t he derivatives is linked to the
underlying asset's value, the contracts are primarily used to hedge
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83 value moves in the opposite direction of an asset owned by the
investor. Profits from th e derivative contract may thus offset losses
from the underlying asset.

 Underlying Asset pricing: Derivatives are frequently used to
determine the underlying asset's price. For example, futures spot
prices can be used to approximate commodity prices.

 Market efficiency: Derivatives are thought to improve the efficiency
of financial markets. The payoff of assets can be replicated using
derivative contracts. As a result, in order to avoid arbitrage
opportunities, the prices of the underlying asset and the assoc iated
derivative tend to be in equilibrium.

 Access to previously unavailable assets or markets: Derivatives
can assist organisations in gaining access to previously unavailable
assets or markets. By using interest rate swaps, a company can obtain
a lower i nterest rate than would be available through direct
borrowing.
Disadvantages
 High risk: Derivatives' high volatility exposes them to potentially
massive losses. The complex design of the contracts makes valuation
extremely difficult, if not impossible. As a result, they have a high
inherent risk.

 Speculative characteristics: Derivatives are widely regarded as a
speculative tool. Unreasonable speculation may result in massive
losses due to the extremely risky nature of derivatives and their
unpredictable beh aviour.

 Counter -party risk: While derivatives traded on exchanges generally
undergo extensive due diligence, some contracts traded over -the-
counter do not include a due diligence benchmark. As a result, there is
a risk of counter -party default.

 Market sens itivity and volatility: Due to the high volatility of the
derivatives market, many investors and traders avoid it. Most
financial instruments are extremely sensitive to small changes, such as
changes in the expiration period, interest rates, and so on, mak ing the
market extremely volatile.

 Complexity: Because of the derivatives market's high risk and
sensitivity, it is frequently a very complex subject. Because
derivatives trading is so difficult to understand, the general public
avoids it, and they frequen tly use brokers and trading agents to invest
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84 7.8 GENERAL OBLIGATIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
APPLICABLE TO BROKER/SUB -BROKER/CLEARING
MEMBER/SELF -CLEARING MEMBER
7.8.1 GENERAL OBLIGATIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
(Chapter IV)
(1) Every S tock Broker must keep and maintain the following books of
account, records, and documents: (a) Transaction Register (Sauda Book);
(b) Clients ledger; (c) General ledger; (d) Journals; (e) Cash book; (f)
Bank pass book; (h) Member's contract books showing d etails of all
contracts entered into by him with other members of the same exchange or
counterfoils or duplicates of memos of confirmation issued to such other
members; (j) Written consent of clients in respect of contracts entered into
as principals; (k) Margin deposit book;
Every stock broker is required to keep books of account and other records
for a minimum of five years.Every stock broker must appoint a
compliance officer who is in charge of monitoring compliance with the
Act, rules and regulations, notifications, guidelines, instructions, and so on
issued by the Board or the Central Government, as well as resolving
investor complaints. Any noncompliance observed by the compliance
officer must be reported to the Board immediately and independently.
7.8.2 PROCEDURE FOR INSPECTION (CHAPTER V)
(a) Board’s right to inspect: Where the Board believes it is necessary, it
may appoint one or more persons as inspecting authority to conduct
inspections of the stock brokers' books of account, other records, and
documents to ensure that the books of account and other books are
maintained in the required manner and that the provisions of the Act,
rules, and regulations are followed.
(b) Procedure for inspection: Before conducting any inspection under
regulation 19, the Board shall provide reasonable notice to the stock
broker. However, if the Board is satisfied that such notice is not in the
best interests of the investors or the public, it may, by written order,
direct that the inspection of the stock broker's affai rs be conducted
without such notice. Upon being authorized by the Board, the
inspecting authority shall conduct the inspection, and the stockbroker
being inspected shall be bound to discharge his obligations.
(c) Obligations of stock -broker on inspection by the Board: Every
director, proprietor, partner, officer, and employee of a stockbroker
who is being inspected shall assist the authority in inspection and
produce such books, accounts, and other documents in his custody, as
well as to provide him with s uch statements and information relating to
the transactions as the said officer may require. The stock -broker shall
allow the inspecting authority reasonable access to the premises
occupied by such stock -broker or any other person on his behalf, as
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85 documents, and computer data in the stock -or broker's any other
person's possession, and shall provide copies of documents or other
materials which, in the inspecting authority's opinion, are relevan t.
(d) Submission of report to the Board: The inspecting authority must
submit an inspection report to the Board as soon as possible. Following
consideration of the inspection or investigation report, the Board shall
take whatever action it deems fit and a ppropriate.
(e) Appointment of an Auditor: Board may appoint a qualified auditor to
investigate into the books of account or the affairs of the stock -broker
7.8.3 PROCEDURE FOR ACTION IN CASE OF DEFAULT
(CHAPTER VI)
A stock broker who violates any of the p rovisions of the Act, rules, or
regulations may faceone or more of the following penalties:
(i) Monetary penalty under Section VIA of the Act for the violations
such as: Failure to file any return or report with the Board, or to
furnish any information, books, or other documents within 15 days of
the Board's issue of notice, or to keep books of account or records in
accordance with the Act, rules, or regulations framed thereunder or to
address investor grievances within 30 days of receiving notice from
the Board or to issue contract notes in the form and manner prescribed
by the Stock Exchange or to deliver any security or make payment to
the investor within 48 hours of trade settlement.
(ii) Penalties as specified, including suspension or cancellation of a
stock broker's certificate of registration for violations such as:
(i) ceases to be a member of a stock exchange; or (ii) is declared a
defaulter by a stock exchange and is not re -admitted as a member
within six months; or (iii) surrenders his certificat e of registration to
the Board; or (iv) is found by the Board to be not a fit and proper
person under these or any other regulations; or (v) has been declared
insolvent or an order for winding up has been passed. (vi) Any of the
partners or any full -time d irector has been convicted by a court of
competent jurisdiction of a moral turpitude -related offense; or (vii)
fails to pay the fee specified in Schedule III of these regulations. (viii)
fails to comply with the rules, regulations and bye -laws of the stock
exchange of which he is a member
(iii) Prosecution in accordance with Section 24 of the Act in case of:
(i) Dealing in securities without first obtaining a certificate of
registration as a stock broker from the Board.
(ii) Trading in securities, providing trading floor, or assisting in trading
outside of a recognized stock exchange in violation of the Securities
Contracts (Regulation) Act of 1956.
(iii) Securities or index market manipulation.
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86 (v) Engaging in fraudule nt and unfair business practices.
(vi) Failure without reasonable cause —(a) to produce to the investigating
authority or any person authorized by him in this regard any books,
registers, (b) to appear personally before the investigating authority or
to ans wer any question posed to him by the investigating authority; or
(c) to sign the notes of any examination taken down by the
investigating authority.
(vii) Failure to pay penalty imposed by the authority.
These provisions of Chapters IV, V and VI of shall m utatis mutandis
apply to sub -broker or a clearing member and self -clearing member or
clearingmember or self -clearing member.
7.9 SUMMARY
A stock broker must be a member of a stock exchange and hold the
necessary SEBI certificate before dealing with securi ties on behalf of
investors. He must provide excellent service to investors, the stock
exchange, and the SEBI. He is responsible for keeping the necessary
books of accounts and records. He must fulfil general obligations, such as
paying SEBI fees, and foll ow the code of conduct, as well as allow the
SEBI or stock exchange authorities to inspect his records and transactions.
He is responsible for ensuring fair play. The investor, on the other hand,
should not be swayed by the broker's advice and should use h is or her own
discretion.
A sub -broker is defined as "any person who is not a member of a stock
exchange who acts on behalf of a stock broker as an agent or otherwise for
assisting investors in buying, selling, or dealing in securities through such
stock b rokers." A sub -broker is an agent who works for a stock exchange
trading member. A sub -broker must be registered with both the Securities
and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and a local stock exchange.Trading
Members: are members of SEBI -registered stock ex changes who are
authorized to trade on their clients' or their own behalf (proprietary
trades). Each trading member is assigned a unique TM -ID under SEBI
regulations.Trading cum Clearing Members (TCM): A Trading Member
(TM) who is also a Clearing Member (C M) of the exchange (TM). TCMs
account for the vast majority of large brokers. This type of TCM can clear
and settle their own proprietary trades, client trades, trades of other TMs,
and even trades of Custodial Participants.
7.10 EXERCISE
A. Choose the cor rect alternative:
1. ________ is not a member of stock exchange but acts on behalf of stock
Broker as an agent.
(a) Sub-Broker (b) Clearing Member (c) Jobbers (d) Trading Member

2. ________ is the oldest stock exchange in India.
(a) Calcutta Stock E xchang e (b) National Stock Exchange
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87
3. ______ act as agent to the investors.
(a) Stock Broker (b) Registrar (c) Proprietor (d) Lessor

4. Which type of derivative instrument is unregulated.
(a) S wap (b) Futures (c) Options (d) Forward

Answers:
7. A _________ grants the holder the right to purchase a predetermined
amount of the underlying asset at the strike price on a predetermined date
(a) put option (b) call Option (c) swap option (d) forward option
1 – (a); 2 – (c); 3 – (a); 4 – (d); 5 – (b)
B. Answer the following
1. List down the code of conduct for the Stock broker.
2. State the obligation of Stock Broker towards Investor.
3. Write a short note on Foreign Broker.
4. State the code of conduct laid down for the trading member / clearing
member or self -clearing member.
5. Write a note on different types of derivatives instruments.
References:
https://www1.nseindia.com/index_nse.htm
https://www.sebi.gov.in/index.html
https://www.sebi.gov.in/legal/regulations/feb -2022/securities -and-
exchange -board -of-india -stock -brokers -regulations -1992 -last-amended -
on-february -23-2022 -_56447.html

Rules and Regulations laid down by the SEBI

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88 8
DEPOSITORY SERVICES
Unit Structure :
8.0 Learning Objective
8.1 Meaning and role of depositories and their services in India
8.2 Advantages of the depository system
8.3 Functioning of the depository system
8.4 Depositories in India - NSDL and CDSL
8.5 Depository Participants (DP’s) and custodial services
8.6 Exercise
8.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit, learner will be able to understand:
 Depository Services its meaning, role of depositories and their services
 Advantages of depository system;
 Functioning of depository system;
 Depositories in India – NSDL & CSDL;
 Depository participants (DPs) and their role Custodial services -
meaning; obligations and responsibilities of custodians; code of
conduct
8.1 MEANING AND ROLE OF DEPOSITORIES AND
THE IR SERVICES IN INDIA
Depositories are important institutions in the Indian capital market, and
their operations are similar to those of banks. Their role is activated when
an investor makes an investment decision. SEBI has registered two
depositories in I ndia: National Securities Depository Limited (NSDL) and
Central Depository Services (India) Limited (CDSL). Both NSDL and
CDSL permit share dematerialization, or holding shares in electronic
form. As a result, the depository is held accountable for the saf ekeeping of
your securities portfolio. Depositories also assist the transfer of securities
from one account to another based on the account holder's instructions.
Depositories handle the transfer of ownership of securities. With all of
your personal inform ation, scrips, and the number of units of each scrip
held by the individual, several corporate actions or transactions, such as
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89 depositories, which serve as an important intermediary in the entire
process.
So, in addition to functioning as a safe -keeper of your securities, the
depository provides services related to securities transactions. The
depositories provide the primary service of dematerialization of shares
through depository part icipants. The risk of counterfeit or fake securities,
faulty delivery, and so forth is reduced with dematerialization. Allows for
the instant transfer of shares from one DP account to another without the
imposition of stamp duty. The nomination process has been simplified.
Any change in correspondence address recorded with the DP is
automatically registered with all companies in which an individual owns
stock. Allows for the holding of multiple securities in a single account,
such as debt, equities, or gove rnment securities.
8.2 ADVANTAGES OF THE DEPOSITORY SYSTEM
A well performing depository system offers a range of benefits as follows;
1. The risk of physical certifications is eliminated -Previously,
investors were subject to a variety of hazards when dealing with
actual shares, including: 1. The risk of stock theft and 2. Certificates
lost in transit. Electronic trading using a demat account has greatly
simplified the procedure.

2. Immediate transfer and registration of securities - Before
depositories, it coul d take anything from 15 days to a month to
transfer shares. You have to complete a transfer form and send it to
the SEBI's office. However, settlement is now done electronically
after market hours and within a few days.

3. Depositories have contributed to re duced costs for the investors -
The reasons can be attributed to Paperwork reduction, Transactions
are simple and rapid. There are no courier fees, and much more. As
broker costs are lowered, the savings are passed on to investors in
the form of lower brok erage fees.

4. Reduces Paperwork and makes processes easy - You can download
and examine the status of your portfolio digitally at any time and
from any location.

5. Elimination of problems due to changes in KYC details - Assume
you have a portfolio of 50 diff erent companies' stocks. You want to
modify your address and bank account information for all of them
today. Previously, you had to courier your paperwork to each
company for any little update. However, you may now just update
the information in your Demat account, and the depository will
update it for all of the firms in your portfolio.

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90 6. Providing a safety net to the investors - Depositories regularly
monitor and assess many aspects of investor protection. This
includes: DP activity inspections on a regul ar basis. The platform's
transactions are encrypted from beginning to end. Depositories
purchase insurance coverage. It enables DP to compensate investors
for losses incurred as a result of errors, omissions, or carelessness.
8.3 FUNCTIONING OF THE DEPOSIT ORY SYSTEM
When you open a Demat account with your depository participant, you
will be given access to a trading platform. You put purchase and sell
orders on this site. Let's break down the procedure with a basic example.
Assume you want to buy Infosys st ock at Rs 1,706. You use your trading
platform to issue a market order and purchase 10 shares. After the trading
day, you will receive 10 shares of Infosys in your Demat account two
working days later. The depository transfers ownership of these shares to
you. Let's imagine the price climbs to Rs 2,000 after a month and you
want to sell the shares. You put another order to sell the shares using your
trading platform. The shares in your Demat account will be deducted in
the backend. In exchange, the same amo unt will be credited to your
account two working days after the trade day. Following that, NSDL or
CDSL will transfer ownership of the shares to the next buyer. When you
sell shares from your Demat, the depository charges a small DP selling
fee. When you s ell a delivery from your Demat account, you will be
charged.
8.4 DEPOSITORIES IN INDIA - NSDL AND CDSL
The process of purchasing and selling shares is possible in India thanks to
depositories, and as an investor, you should be aware of the two
operational depositories. There are two depositories in India: National
Securities Depositories Ltd (NSDL) and Central Securities Depositories
Ltd (CSDL) (CDSL). Both depositories retain your financial securities in
dematerialised form, such as shares and bonds, and permit trading on
stock exchanges. To use the depositories and begin your investing
experience, you must first open a Demat account and a trading account.
Always remember to open the best Demat account with a reputable
stockbroker because it will assist yo u in making sound investment
decisions.
NSDL – Let us look at a few facts about NSDL. NSDL is India's oldest
and largest depository. It began operations in Mumbai in 1996. It was the
first depository to offer electronic trading services. According to SEBI
data, NSDL has around 2.4 crore active investors and over 36,123
depository participant service centres spread across 2,000 cities. NSDL is
entrusted with the electronic storage of the following financial securities:
stocks, bonds, debentures, commercial documents, and mutual funds.
NSDL provides a wide range of services, including: dematerialisation,
rematerialisation, transfers between depositories, off -market transfers,
securities lending, and collateral and mortgage of securities. munotes.in

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Depository Services
91 CDSL – Along with NSD L, CDSL is the second depository in the country.
CDSL began operations in Mumbai in 1999 and is the country's second -
largest depository after NSDL.It, like NSDL, provides all services, such as
keeping financial securities in electronic format and facilitat ing trade and
order settlement. This central depository, like NSDL, holds all types of
stocks and securities.
According to SEBI data, it has about 5.2 crore active client accounts and
approximately 21,434 depository participant service centres.
In terms o f investor services, there is no significant difference between
holding a Demat account with a DP registered with NSDL or CDSL. Both
are SEBI -regulated and offer identical trading and investing services. The
only distinction between the two depositories is in their operational
markets. While NSDL's principal operational market is the National Stock
Exchange (NSE), CDSL's primary market is the Bombay Stock Exchange
(BSE).
8.5 DEPOSITORY PARTICIPANTS (DP’S) AND
CUSTODIAL SERVICES
A Depository Participant (DP) is referred to as an Agent of the Depository
in India. They act as go -betweens for the depository and the investors. The
connection between the DPs and the depository is governed by a
Depositories Act agreement between the two. A DP is a legal entity that
has been registered as such with SEBI under subsection 1A of Section 12
of the SEBI Act. According to the Act's regulations, a DP may only
provide depository -related services after receiving a certificate of
registration from SEBI. As of 2012, there were 288 NSDL DPs and 563
CDSL DPs registered with SEBI. Clearing members but not trading
members are custodians. They settle trades executed by other trading
members on behalf of their clients. A trading member may delegate a
specific trade to a custodian for settlement. The custodian must confirm
whether or not he intends to settle the trade. NSE Clearing distributes the
liability to the custodian if the custodian confirms the deal. If the trade is
rejected by the custodian, the obligation is allocated back t o the trading
member. Custodians Clearing members must request a Custodian
Participant (CP) code from Clearing Corporation for each customer for
whom they desire to clear and settle. Custodians provide services such as
transaction settlements, account mana gement, dividend collection, interest
payments, foreign exchange, and tax assistance in addition to storing
securities. The rates charged vary depending on the services requested by
the clients. Some firms impose a quarterly fee based on the total value of
the assets under custody. A custodian may also receive authority to assert
control over assets using a power of attorney. This means that the
custodian can act on behalf of the client, such as changing investments or
making payments. If the investment adv isor is given custody of customer
funds, he or she must observe the Securities and Exchange Board of
India's custody guidelines (SEBI). Banks, registered brokers, registered
dealers, and certain people are the only entities that can be called
competent cus todians. These entities will be accountable for informing munotes.in

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Financial Services
92 customers when certain operations are carried out on their behalf or while
utilising their assets. Account statements must also be given to consumers
to keep them up to date on the current status of their assets.
8.6 EXERCISE
Answer the following:
1. State the meaning and role of Depository Services in financial system.
2. State the major Depositories in India and explain about them in brief.
3. Explain the role of custodial services its meaning; obl igations and
responsibilities of custodians; code of conduct
Write Short notes on:
1. Advantages of depository system.
2. Functioning of depository system.



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